Noel F. LeJeune

University of Colorado at Denver

 

Literature describing the implementation of learner-centered strategies in Web-based instruction for adults is very recent and limited. Investigated learner-centered strategies are intentional learning, self-direction/learner autonomy, collaboration, creation of communities, and self-reflection. Suggested implementations of strategies are most common in the literature with experiential reports less common. Qualitative or quantitative research is rare. Expectations are that learner-centered strategies in WBI will lead to better instructional designs and improved andragogical practices. WBI offers promise as a learning tool in contrast to merely another medium for instructional delivery. Research opportunities include determining changes this learning tool affects on learners, instructors, and andragogical practices. Developments of additional implementation techniques of learner-centeredness and assessment tools are additional research areas.

Web-based instruction (WBI) is an increasingly popular method for delivering college courses. However, "… simply publishing a World Wide Web page with links to other digital resources does not constitute instruction" (Ritchie & Hoffman, 1997, p. 135). Unfortunately, the rush to create Web-based instruction has not seen a parallel investment in sound educational strategies. There are both opportunities and challenges for incorporating valid andragogical principles in Web-based instruction to improve learning outcomes. While learner-centered strategies are the primary focus in the current education literature, their use in Web-based instruction is a recently emerging theme.

Applying learner-centered strategies to adult instruction is not a new concept. "The literature, as well as the practice, of adult education tends to be learner-centered rather than instructor centered" (Cross, 1981, p. 227). While these learner-centered strategies can be applied to non Web-based instruction, Web technology is especially well suited to incorporating many of these strategies (Kahn, 1997). Other Web characteristics pose special challenges that are more difficult to successfully implement.

Learner-centeredness is the instructional or training perspective where the emphasis is on learning as opposed to teaching (Wagner & McCombs, 1995, p. 32). The nomenclature for learner-centered approaches to education and learner-centered environments is broad with many semantic variations upon a limited number of content areas. Authors, providing a slightly differing perspective, coin new phrases for similar topics. A challenging exercise would be to compare and contrast the meanings of many of these terms such as learner-centered, active learning, open learning, intentional learning, and rich environments for active learning.

Learner-centered instructional strategies commonly discussed in the literature are:

Literature references to learner-centered strategies in Web-based instruction is limited to a subset of this list. It is also significant that the literature pertaining to learner-centeredness in WBI does not offer new strategies unique to the Web. The current state of the art, as evidenced by the volume of the literature, is to suggest the use of learner-centered strategies in WBI. A smaller volume of published reports suggests implementations while minimal literature discusses actual experiences implementing the strategies. At this time, quantitative or qualitative research on the subject is nearly non-existent. The limited literature is most likely a result of the very recent emergence of Web technology.

The focus here is limited to five commonly reported learner-centered strategies for WBI. Brief descriptions of each strategy and the andragogical basis complement reported examples of actual or suggested Web-based implementations. Several interesting research areas associated with learner-centered strategies in Web-based instruction are suggested.

 

Intentional learning is the "… cognitive processes that have learning as a goal rather than an incidental outcome" (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1989, p. 363). The view of learning as a goal also means "… by approaching learning within a problem-solving framework, the learner is in a position to elaborate and revise goals, to make practical decisions about the allocation of time and resources to various subgoals, and generally to pursue a more planful course" (p. 372). Intentional learning implies that students must learn to learn as well as to accrue knowledge (Grabinger, 1996, p. 672). Intentional learning embodies APA Learner-centered Psychological Principles 1 and 7. They state that "Learning is a natural process of pursuing personally meaningful goals" and "Curiosity, creativity, and higher-order thinking are stimulated by relevant, authentic learning tasks of optimal difficulty and novelty for each student." The metacognitive aspects should not be overlooked since it is this awareness of our own thinking that "… facilitates creative and critical thinking and the development of expertise" (American Psychological Association, 1993, pp. 6-7).

Most published reports on the use of intentional learning techniques in a Web-based environment are concerned with successfully converting non-Web-based techniques to the Web.

Bonk (1997, pp. 169-171) suggests twenty creative and critical thinking techniques for the Web. While the use of Web technology does not enhance, or may not actually support, some suggested techniques, several others are intriguing. Graphic organizers such as flowcharts, concept maps, Venn diagrams, or decision-making trees are minimally supported by current Web technology. Nearly all other intentional learning techniques suggested by Bonk are feasible in WBI. Unfortunately, he does not offer any arguments that Web technology provides any benefits over other media for most of these strategies. Bonk does not provide Web-based implementation techniques for many of his suggestions or any first-hand experiences of practice. An exciting challenge is creating effective Web-based techniques for these tools.

Littlejohn and Awalt use intentional learning with a problem-based paradigm in philosophy courses that make significant use of WBI. Although the courses are not entirely Web-based "The Web is the second key teaching tool used in the class and it serves as a support for the problem-based learning approach" (Littlejohn & Awalt, 1997, p. 179). They use the Web for the usual repository of course information and to introduce the unit problems, provide links to philosophy resources, interact using chat rooms, and to participate in virtual reality exercises.

 

Learner self-direction implies that the learner has significant input in determining the knowledge content and skills needed. This need usually results when a learner experiences some problem needing a solution. Autonomy, while also defined as self-directed, means that the learner is independent or self-reliant. Self-direction and learner autonomy are learner-centered strategies and well-recognized characteristic of adult learners (Cross, 1981; Knowles, 1975; Knowles, 1980).

Rich environments for active learning (REALs) provide for learner self-direction and learner autonomy and are rooted in constructivist values (Grabinger, 1996). Authentic learning tasks and problem-based learning are strategies that lend themselves to learner self-direction and autonomy. Learners with a need to solve "real world" problems are very adept and motivated to acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to find solutions. The authenticity and motivational nature of these strategies make them prime candidates for inclusion in Web-based instruction.

Web-based instruction using the vast resources of the Web naturally tends toward increased learner autonomy. "In an information-rich environment … it is more appropriate to guide the students toward expected end-results and let them organize their learning on their own" (Duchastel, 1997, p. 224). Descriptions of many Web-based courses note the opportunity for learners to assert their autonomy while benefiting from the information available in cyberspace.

Learning contracts (Knowles, 1975) are outstanding tools for providing learners the opportunity for self-direction while providing guidance in the use of resources. The intentional learning aspect of the contracts and the self-reflection required in the use of learning contracts also contribute to their value. Web-based instruction is ideally suited to their implementation. Although some courses undoubtedly use the learning contract in some form, published accounts of their use in WBI were not found.

Problem-based learning (PBL) also plays a significant role in learner self-direction. "In PBL the student is the primary agent of his/her own learning with guidance and support from the professor" (Littlejohn & Awalt, 1997, p. 173). The philosophy courses of Littlejohn and Awalt make significant use of the Web as a communication and reference tool based upon problem-based learning.

Stephen Bostock (Bostock, 1997) describes his incorporation of "Active Learning" principles in an Arts and Humanities course he taught using the Web. The strategies included autonomy in learning, collaboration, critical reflection, and authentic interactions with the real world (p. 226). The Web served as the medium for communication with content pages, resource links, and Web forms for evaluation. The Web was integral to the course but the learner-centered strategies were not integral to the Web.

Judith Baker proposes the use of "Guided Web Exploration" as an approach to teaching critical thinking (Baker, 1997). One of the better suggested applications of learner-centered strategies is Baker’s incorporation of problem-based concepts, self-reflection, and guided learner-autonomy in her Guided Web Exploration.

Major components of the GWE are: 1) scenario or hypothetical setting with which the learner can identify; 2) challenge to the learner to solve a problem or create; 3) resources for information accessible via the Internet; 4) suggestions for plan of action, crtical thinking and problem solving; 5) definitions of terms; 6) learning outcome in the form of a product; and 7) opportunity for reflection and self-assessment of the learning-experience" (p. 2).

Especially significant is that Baker attempts to take the Web from medium for delivery to a learning tool. "Guided Web Exploration represents an innovative and systematic attempt to optimize the Internet as a teaching tool" (p. 2).

 

Collaboration is an important objective for learner-centered instruction (Harasim, 1990; Schrage, 1991; Verdejo, 1996). The benefit of collaborative groups lies in the greater cognitive development that results when compared to individual learning.

"Collaborative or group learning refers to instructional methods whereby students are encouraged or required to work together on academic tasks" (Harasim, Calvert, & Groeneboer, 1997 p. 149). Collaboration occurs when an experience is actively shared with the outcome being greater than that resulting from a non-shared experience. The process of collaboration involves a shared creation of meaning (Schrage, 1991, p. 40).

The creation of Virtual-U as a "Web-based networked learning environment customized for the design, delivery and enhancement of post-secondary education" (Harasim et al., 1997, p. 149) illustrates an apparently successful application of learner-centered strategies. Web-based conferencing is the primary tool for course delivery. However, Virtual-U is a "… framework consisting of tools to support core activities including course design, individual and group learning activities, knowledge structuring, class management, and evaluation" (Harasim et al., 1997, p. 152).

Harasim reports that collaboration provided significant outcomes such as:

These are observations of outcomes without the support of either qualitative or quantitative research. It is also important to note that only two pilot courses had been offered at the time of publication. These observations are, however, an excellent example of actual experiences with Web-based courses.

 

Creation of communities of learners encourages the sharing of knowledge and the sharing in the knowledge building process. The creation of community is a corollary to collaboration in that an additional benefit of collaboration is the creation of a learner community. Schrage suggests that community building and collaboration together are most beneficial. "The thing that distinguishes collaborative communities from most other communities is this desire to construct new meanings about the world through interaction with others. The collaborative community becomes the medium for both self-knowledge and self-expression" (Schrage, 1991, p. 48).

Attempts to create communities of learners are the most commonly reported implementations of learner-centered strategies in Web-based instruction. Many characteristics of the Web enable successful creation of communities. Kahn (1997, p. 18) lists features that are particularly well suited to creation of community such as Listservs, newsgroups, e-mail, and the multi-user chat.

McLellan (1997) reports a successful application of collaboration resulting in the creation of a Web-based community. She offered a graduate course on Information Design via the Internet using a model for creating collaborative communities. Her course implementation centered upon the design themes suggested by Schrage (McLellan, 1997; Schrage, 1991). The implementations of many of the themes is self-evident such as the use of Listservs and Web pages for the "Creation and Manipulation of Shared Spaces," "Multiple Forms of Representation," and "Continuous but Not Continual Communication." However, the theme of "Mutual Respect, Tolerance, and Trust" is not Internet or Web specific. She does suggest that extraneous variables such as race, gender, different abilities, and appearances that sometimes are the basis for lack of respect, tolerance, and trust are removed in an Internet and Web-based environment (p. 187).

Betty Collis provides descriptions of specific Web-based tools used to enable collaborative learning (Collis, 1997b). The course in Educational Science and Technology at the University of Twente in The Netherlands uses a problem-solving framework with the Web playing an integral part of the course. Learners work in groups with group assignments and specific tasks facilitated through the use of Web pages, Web forms for reporting progress, and Web forms for evaluations. Shared workspaces for groups allow adding, reading, and updating of on going project work (Collis, 1997a, p. 217). The results of integrating the World Wide Web into the "… course environment have been positive in terms of both student and instructor evaluations" (p. 218). This work, like that of Harasim, Calvert, and Groeneboer with Virtual-U, provides observations but does not offer either qualitative or quantitative research to support successful outcomes.

 

Learner self-reflection is a process of thinking about learning, assessment of knowledge and skills, and thinking about how one learns. It is a metacognitive process representing thinking about thinking. As a learner-centered strategy, its focus is to individualize the assessments and needs for the learner.

Self-reflection is also an important skill used in intentional learning (Grabinger, 1996, p. 672). The benefits are improved levels of problem solving skills and abilities for self-assessment.

One method for achieving self-reflection is through learner journalizing. Bonk adds minute papers, reflection logs, think sheets, and guided questioning techniques that are possible in WBI (1997, p. 171). The Web technology could be as simple as Web-based forms that prompt the learner to answer questions promoting self-reflection. Methods for encouraging self-reflection may be sufficiently fundamental to teaching practices that Web implementations seem obvious. Baker’s use of self-reflection in her Guided Web Exploration (Baker, 1997) was discussed previously in the section on self-direction/learner autonomy.

 

There is a critical need for research on learning outcomes in Web-based instruction. Windschitl (1998) asks, "Are these practices helping students, and, if so, how?" (p. 28).

Clark asserts "there is ample evidence from both quantitative and qualitative inquiry that the substitution of another medium and/or attribute of a medium will produce the same or similar learning outcomes" (1994, p. 7). Nevertheless, the instantiation of any learner-centered strategy in a Web-based environment results in a more complex and unique representation of the core principle. Technology tools modify our learning styles and our cognitive approaches. Examples are the word processor causing changes in our skill sets and thought processes (Owston, 1997) and computer collaboration tools changing how we interact with our collaborators (Schrage, 1991). Owston makes a valid distinction between the Web "… used as a tool for learning, as opposed to a medium for delivering predetermined content" (Owston, 1997, p. 29). The Web, as a tool rather than a medium implementing a method, may well negate Clark’s argument.

Qualitative, longitudinal studies could provide an approach to determining what changes learners exhibit from experiences with learner-centered Web-based courses. This implies the existence of suitable courses, a learner population of subjects, and tools for analyzing the subjects both before and after the experience. The analysis tools are the most readily available today. Stable Web-based courses that implement learner-centered strategies may be more problematic.

 

Windschitl poses another important question concerning the World Wide Web and instruction, "How is the introduction of this technology changing pedagogical practices?" Successful Web-based instruction is likely to change the role of instructors as well as learners. There is a great need for instructional design in WBI that is expected to change andragogical practices. In addition, the Web-based instructor will assume an increasing role as a facilitator (Shotsberger, 1997). The intriguing question is not only how andragogical practices changes but also how the practitioners change.

The changes associated with the adoption of Web-based instruction offer opportunities for research in adoption of change as well as in the changing roles and practices of instructors. History will determine if Bonk and Reynolds are exaggerating when they say, "… educational historians and cultural anthropologists may treat the proliferation of World Wide Web instructional tools and techniques as one of the most significant cultural advances of the next century!" (Bonk & Reynolds, 1997, p. 175).

Qualitative or quantitative methods comparing transformations of instructors that move from traditional classrooms to Web-based courses are avenues for research. Measures of the relative changes in andragogical practices are feasible using either qualitative or quantitative methods. The rapid increase in utilization of Web technology is an opportunity to look at populations of instructors as they adopt or reject this technological innovation.

 

Comparing Web implementations of selected learner-centered strategies with the same strategies in the classroom is another area for investigation. This should provide additional ideas for implementing Web techniques and a greater awareness of the advantages and limitations of both environments.

A literature review might be a sufficient resource for this area of investigation. Bannan and Milheim (1997) propose a framework for analyzing and describing Web-based materials from a viewpoint of underlying pedagogical techniques. Their approach could form a basis for comparison with traditional classroom activities.

 

Another area for research is the predictability for individual learner success in Web-based instruction. Certain learner attributes are predictors of success in distance learning while other attributes define learners at-risk for failure (Hanson et al., 1997, pp. 24-27). Some of these characteristics are motivation (intrinsic/extrinsic), locus of control (internal/external), learning styles (abstract/concrete), and metacognitive and executive skills. The similarities of WBI and distance learning courses raise the question as to whether many of these same attributes could predict an individual’s likelihood of success, or failure, with WBI. Research correlating learner attributes with learning outcomes from WBI will provide tools for identifying at-risk learners. Intervention techniques may be developed to improve an at-risk learner’s likelihood of success.

This work, as that suggested for learner outcome research, requires a learner population of subjects and Web-based courses. Sufficient research of distance learner attributes may provide measurement tools to gather before and after data from the learners.

 

Assessment methods for learner-centered strategies are problematic. "Assessment strategies must examine what content people learned, the strategies employed in learning, [italics added] and what students can do with the knowledge [italics added]" (Grabinger, 1996, p. 687). Do we have satisfactory assessment tools to evaluate learner outcomes for learner-centered strategies? This is another topic for literature research. Compound the need for assessment tools for learner-centered strategies with the need for Web-based assessment tools. In Web-based instruction there is an absence of direct interactions with the learners that may pose special problems for evaluation of learner outcomes (Nichols, 1997).

This research is likely performed through extensive qualitative analysis to determine the success of learner-centered approaches in affecting strategies employed in learning. Measurements of successful application of knowledge also need literature research followed by designed research projects.

 

Learner-centered strategies in Web-based instruction are of great interest in the emerging educational literature. While many efforts are underway to implement learner-centered practices in Web-based instruction, there are very few published reports on the actual outcomes for learning content or for improving learning skills. Most of the literature is at the stage of discussing how one might apply the strategies, while a smaller volume of published works discuss how it is accomplished. Qualitative or quantitative research related to the implementation of learner-centered strategies in Web environments is minimal. Most authors express high expectations for success with learner-centered strategies in Web-based instruction while some documented early successes do offer encouragement. A few reported experiences offer the possibility that the Web-based instruction may become a learning tool rather than merely another delivery medium.

Web-based instruction is in its infancy and the opportunity for implementation of learner-centered strategies, application of quality instructional design practices, and research is enormous. The literature is increasing, though still sparse, on implementation methods. As this grows, empirical reports of experiences should evolve into more rigorous research.

 

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