MICHELLE BYRNE (MS, PHD)

Interviewing is one of the most common methods for collecting data in qualitative research. Interviews allow participants to provide rich, contextual descriptions of events. The process of interviewing is time-consuming, and the quality of data often is dependent on the aptitude of the interviewer. This article will address preparing and implementing a research interview, as well as strategies for transcribing and analyzing the data collected.

 

Before selecting interviewing as a data collection method, the researcher must determine whether the research question can be answered appropriately by interviewing people who have experienced the phenomenon of interest. A hypothetical study will be used to illustrate one process the researcher could use to facilitate interviewing. One focus for a research study could be to explore the lived experiences of fathers during cesarean section procedures. For this study, it has been proposed to interview fathers within 48 hours after delivery and then again between one and two months postdelivery.

You may wonder why the researcher would want to interview the same person more than once. There are two major reasons. First is the perspective of temporal knowledge. The term temporal is a philosophical term that defines how a person's current situation and knowledge have been influenced by his or her experiences and how the current situation will partially determine his or her future.(1) This explanation of temporality suggests that a person's perceptions of events may change with time.

The second reason for conducting more than one interview is to meet methodological rigor criteria for prolonged engagement. A second interview allows the participant to confirm or clarify information given in the first interview. A second interview also may ensure heightened trust between the participant and the researcher, thus enabling further disclosure of private thoughts and feelings.

 

The first step in all research is to conduct a pilot study. The researcher should practice how he or she will gain access to a sample, conduct interviews, and transcribe and analyze the data. Different approaches may exist depending on the methodology used.(2) A consistent approach should be used with both the pilot and actual study.

Accessing the sample. Initially, the researcher must decide whether to interview fathers whose significant others experienced emergent cesarean sections or fathers whose significant others experienced scheduled cesarean sections. Another sampling issue may be whether to include fathers of all ages. All of these decisions should be documented in a research journal. A literature review and access to participants may assist the researcher in deciding on sample criteria. In this hypothetical study, the sample comprises fathers between the ages of 20 and 45 who speak English and whose significant others underwent a planned cesarean section to deliver first-born children.

The next step is finding fathers to participate in the study. The researcher could talk to obstetricians for referrals. Contacting childbirth educators in the area also may elicit referrals. Another option may be to access the information from a surgical schedule. Keep in mind, however, the researcher will need appropriate permission from an institutional review board before contacting potential participants. After receiving names of potential participants for the study, the researcher will need to make preinterview contact.

Preinterview contact or introduction usually is made via telephone. This discussion should provide the potential participant information regarding the study, ensure protection of privacy, and explain what will and will not be done with the data. If the potential participant agrees to participate in the study, a mutually agreed time and place for the interview should be decided.

Conducting the interview. The interview should take place in a quiet environment with no distractions. Ideally, the researcher should sit across from the participant with a tape recorder between the two to capture both voices equally well. This positioning also enables the researcher to note nonverbal cues, such as eye contact, crying, laughing, or hand gestures.

 

The type of interview will be determined by the research question, methodology, and literature insight. Interviews can either be structured or unstructured.(3) In a structured interview, the researcher asks explicit questions consistently of all participants. In an unstructured interview, the researcher asks open-ended questions. The researcher's probes then are related directly to the participant's answers.

An interview generally consists of three stages.(4) The first stage includes introductions, provides an overview of the process, and builds trust. The middle of the interview usually is where the bulk of useful data is derived. Questions and probes should be directed to the phenomenon of interest. It is important at this stage for the researcher to keep the discussion focused on the topic. Participants who ramble or discuss irrelevant issues will increase the cost and time for transcription of audiotapes. If a participant spends 10 minutes discussing a new sports car, that discussion will not generate any new knowledge about the experience of cesarean section for fathers. The final portion of the interview should be a summary of the participant's responses and allow for confirmation or additional information to be given.

The researcher usually develops an interview guide with cues for topic questions and probes.(5) A good interviewer must master communication skills. These skills include listening, paraphrasing, probing, and summarizing.(6) The researcher must be careful not to lead the participant in a specific direction. There is nothing quite so humbling as listening to yourself on audiotape and hearing overt blunders, such as interrupting the participant and asking leading or inane questions. This is another reason for conducting a pilot study--improving one's interviewing skills.

Most often, interviews are recorded on audiotape or videotape. Occasionally, a researcher may rely solely on taking notes during interviews. There is a greater chance for misinterpretation of the responses if the interview is not recorded. To facilitate the recording process, the researcher should check the tapes, volume, and equipment with a "this is a test" format immediately before an interview. A test taping might include the researcher stating the date and place and letting the participant state his or her name and consent to be included in the study. Next, the tape can be stopped and replayed to make certain all parties can be heard. Another tip is to carry extra batteries and tapes and to practice troubleshooting the equipment before the first interview.

 

Transcribing and analyzing interview data. It is a good idea for the researcher to transcribe an initial audiotape. Transcribing audiotapes is an arduous process. It can be quite costly to hire a transcriptionist. Further, if medical terminology is used in the interview, it is important that the transcriptionist be familiar with such terminology. Dictation machines that use foot pedals to start and stop audiotapes so hands are free to type data into a software program are available. Another area of concern during transcription is participant confidentiality and anonymity. A transcriptionist will hear discussions that are private and confidential, so the researcher must have the participant's consent for a third party to listen to the interview tapes.

Transcripts should be coded so the participant cannot be identified. They also should be kept in a secure location (eg, locked file cabinet) to which only the researcher or consented transcriptionist have access. When quotes are used, details may need to be changed or omitted. For example, if one father had a terrible experience and said "at Mercy Hospital there is no mercy," the actual hospital name should not be disclosed in a research report.

 

Interview transcripts provide the data for analysis. Usually in qualitative research, the researcher concurrently collects and analyzes data. This is done to support the evolution of theory or theme confirmation. For example, if three out of five fathers talk about fear of blood, the researcher may want to add a question to the interview guide so he or she can determine whether future participants have the same fear. Another example would be if the researcher explained to a subsequent participant that other fathers reported experiencing feelings of helplessness when they first saw the mother on the OR bed and asked if the participant also experienced this feeling. With concurrent data collection and analysis, the interview guide will evolve and change with an increasing number of completed interviews.

Interviewing as a data collection method is common for qualitative research studies. Although methodology may cause the process of interviewing to differ, many methods are similar. The researcher must make preinterview contact, prepare for the interview by drafting an interview guide, conduct the interview using good communication skills, oversee transcription of audiotapes or videotapes, and ensure that the transcripts provide the basis for analysis. Although the process of interviewing can be time-consuming and costly, it also can be a rewarding experience for the researcher.

(1.) P E Benner, J Wrubel, The Primacy of Caring: Stress and Coping in Health and Illness (Menlo Park, Calif: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co, 1989) 412-413.

(2.) J M Sorrell, G M Redmond, "Interviews in qualitative nursing research: Differing approaches for ethnographic and phenomenological studies," Journal of Advanced Nursing 21 (June 1995) 1117-1122; P Wimpenny, J Gass, "Interviewing in phenomenology and grounded theory: Is there a difference?" Journal of Advanced Nursing 31 (June 2000) 1485-1492.

(3.) H J Streubert, D R Carpenter, Qualitative Research in Nursing: Advancing the Humanistic Imperative, second ed (Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams, & Wilkins, 1999) 23-24; D A Erlandson et al, Doing Naturalistic Inquiry: A Guide to Methods (Newbury Park, Calif: Sage Publications, 1993) 85-94.

(4.) Y S Lincoln, E G Guba, Naturalistic Inquiry (Beverly Hills, Calif: Sage Publications, 1985).

(5.) S L Norwood, Research Strategies for Advanced Practice Nurses (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Health, 2000) 257-261.

(6.) N Burns, S K Grove, The Practice of Nursing Research: Conduct, Critique & Utilization (Philadelphia: W B Saunders, 1993) 365-367.