Gilberto Teixeira (Prof. Doutor FEA/USP)

 

This paper examines  five different theories on instruction:  used

in   Higher Education

·        Cooperative  Learning

·        Whole-Brain Teaching

·        Cognitive  Coaching

·        School –to-Work Transition

·        Instructional Technology

 

 

 

Cooperative Learning

Definition
Cooperative learning consists of instructional techniques that require positive interdependence between learners in order for learning to occur.

Basic Elements
Research shows that both competitive and cooperative interaction are a healthy part of a child's repertoire of behavior. By second grade, however, urban children have effectively extinguished their cooperative behavior and persist in competition, even when it's counterproductive. By developing deliberately cooperative techniques, educators aim to correct the unconscious societal and educational bias that favors competition.

Research has also found an interesting racial implication in cooperative learning: Minority children are more likely to retain these cooperative strategies. In fact, when educators introduce cooperative learning into the classroom, minority learners show a disproportionate improvement in achievement.

Patterns for student interaction are called structures. Together, teachers and students develop a repertoire of these structures. So when the teacher announces that the class will use a particular exercise to explore today's lesson topic, students know what type of interaction to expect. For example, when the teacher says the class will use the "Think-Pair-Share" exercise to study African wildlife, students know they will work independently to write down their thoughts on elephants or lions, then find a partner, share their ideas with their partner, and probe each other for complete understanding.

It is up to the instructor to integrate the interactive exercises with the specific lesson content. The teacher must give careful thought to who should collaborate with whom and why, how to manage the classroom while unleashing cooperative activity, and how to balance the attention to both content and cooperative skill building.

Reading
Spencer Kagan, Cooperative Learning, Resources for Teachers, 1992.

 

Whole Brain Teaching



Definition
Whole-brain teaching is an instructional approach derived from neurolinguistic descriptions of the functions of the brain's left and right hemispheres.

Basic Elements
Neurolinguistic findings about the brain's language functions show that in the integrated brain, the functions of one hemisphere are immediately available to the other, producing a more balanced use of language. Whole-brain teaching emphasizes active learning, in which the learner makes connections that tap both hemispheres.

Another aspect of whole-brain teaching is managing the emotional climate, to reduce the "downshifting"--or primal thinking--that occurs during distress. To relax learners, instructors may offer clear, realistic predictions of barriers (such as, "Advancement may be sporadic") and progress (such as, "Sooner or later, this will become easier"). Plus, instructors may try enhancing the learning experience with music or soothing colors.

In whole-brain learning, imaging is seen as the basis for comprehension. For this reason, learners are encouraged to visualize, draw, and use drama as they develop new ideas, in order to retain them. A reading teacher, for instance, might present new vocabulary words by building a story or skit that uses them--but doesn't define them--in context. The teacher then might play music while reading the definitions, leaving time for listeners to draw images of the words. The teacher next might use guided meditation to build a relaxed state containing memories of success before the listeners hear the definitions again. And the learners might even act out the words' meanings or construct stories of their own.

Reading
T. Buzan, Use Both Sides of Your Brain. NY: Dutton (1976).

G.L. Rico, Writing the Natural Way. Los Angeles, CA: Tarcher.

D.H. Schuster and L. Vincent, "Teaching Math and Reading with Suggestion and Music," Academic Therapy, vol. 16(1), 69-72 (Sept, 1980).

 

 

Cognitive Coaching


Definition
Cognitive coaching is based on the idea that metacognition--or being aware of one's own thinking processes--fosters independence in learning. By providing personal insights into the learner's own thinking processes, cognitive coaching builds flexible, confident problem-solving skills. Plus, it encourages self-efficacy and pride.

Basic Elements
Coaching involves the modeling of self-appraisal and the self-management of cognition by an expert. It also involves learner performance and reflection, internalizing, and generalizing.

In modeling, the instructor explains thinking, reading, and calculating strategies by naming the strategy (such as "eliminating alternatives" or "finding the main idea"), then explaining why it should be learned. The instructor also provides explicit steps for using a particular strategy, deciding when it's appropriate, and evaluating it.

Dialogue, both on the part of instructor and student, is another prominent aspect of coaching. For example, in the "scaffolded instruction" technique, teachers and students take turns leading dialogues about texts, asking each other to predict, question, clarify, summarize, and self-appraise.

Scott Paris, in his 1990 article "Promoting Metacognition and Motivation of Exceptional Children" in Remedial and Special Education, lists the following fundamentals of building effective metacognitive skills:

1.      Common goals held by teachers and students

2.      Ongoing assessment of performance, in order to adjust difficulty levels

3.      Mutual regulation--in other words, teachers benefit from the students' misconceptions and observations of the strategies, while students learn from their instructor's previous experience using the strategies

Adult learning principles greatly support cognitive coaching and predict its success. For example, adult coaching is often used as an alternative to clinical supervision in developing the teaching and management skills of school administrators. However, cognitive coaching is also being developed in K-12 instructional programs for special needs and whole language students. Apparently, the same principles apply for both adults and children...imagine that!

Reading
Farmer, James A., New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education.

Marzano, R.J. et al., Dimensions of Thinking. Alexandria: ASCD.

Paris, Scott G. "Promoting Metacognition and Motivation of Exceptional Children, Remedial and Special Education, Nov-Dec 1990, pp 7-15.

 

 

 

School to Work Transition

Definition


School-to-work programs provide ways for students to transition successfully into the economy, either through paid employment with a business or self-employment. Numerous studies reveal that, upon high school graduation, many students who aren't college-bound are neither prepared for nor connected to employment opportunities.

Basic Elements
In general, building a school-to-work transition program entails the following three approaches:

1.      Integrate the long-separated "tracks" of academic and vocational education. From middle school on, schools should orient youth to work, help them explore different types of jobs, provide guidance about career paths, and assist them in finding work relevant to their needs and interests. Vocational education is considered too narrow and specific, outdated by modern technology, and ineffective in building language and math skills. Academic education is criticized for being too conventional, driven predominantly by standardized tests, and ineffective at motivating most students.

2.      Link schooling with the demands and realities of the workplace. Through employment-related experiences and on-the-job learning, students can receive significant exposure to the workforce and can prepare for their future work environment.

3.      Develop programs to closely coordinate secondary and post-secondary education with employers. Apprenticeships and school-business partnerships are just two of the many ways educators and businesspeople can produce a shared view of youth learning and development.

These changes have extensive learning implications, particularly for high schools, including:

Curriculum--Develop new models that integrate vocational and academic education, from revamping the guidance counseling system to creating a coherent sequence of courses related to broad occupational clusters.

Instruction--Focus on experiential, project-based learning. Also, reduce the "tracking," or segregation, of students into either academic or vocational studies.

Assessment--Use portfolios to gauge a student's employability.

 

 

 

 

 

Instructional Technology

Definition
Instructional technology is just what it sounds like: using computers, CD-ROMs, interactive media, modems, satellites, teleconferencing, and other technological means to support learning.

Discussion
Some educators believe the use of interactive, computer-based technology is crucial to improving classroom learning. These educators contend that advanced technology will fundamentally change the learning process and structure. Other educators believe technology is merely a tool that has minimal impact on the quality of learning. Many  researches  demonstrated that  the

  majority  of those educators  not favoring  technology ,

have some resistance to  acquire the skills  for using

technology   ;many  had technofobia

How Instructional Technology Affects Learning
Curriculum--Advanced technology has the potential to significantly expand the breadth and depth of the curriculum. With the Internet, for example, students can access information far beyond the scope of their traditional textbooks. Curricula can be individualized and adapted to students' specific learning styles. Instructional technology has the power to enhance overall knowledge accumulation, instead of just focusing on content mastery.

Instruction--Advanced technology could significantly affect the role of teachers, as well as the structure of schools and classrooms. The use of instructional technology changes the teacher's role from expert to facilitator or coach. Plus, instruction is no longer limited to the school building or classroom. For example, students can take courses from a global satellite feed or on the Internet. Learning can take place at home, at work, or anywhere else that has the capacity for a television, phone, or computer.

Assessment--Instructional technology will focus more and more on building feedback loops directly into the learning process.

 

Students can obtain frequent and accurate feedback, make corrections to their work, and structure learning experiences around their individual needs. Assessment can be monitored by offsite instructors, plus it can be ongoing and cumulative.

Reading
Lewis J. Perelman, School's Out.