Os IGNORANTES, que acham saber tudo, privam -se de um dos maiores prazeres da vida: APRENDER.
Início Ensino a Distância Online Tutoring e-book Chapter 6 - Culture and Ethics: Facilitating Online Learning

Online Tutoring e-book Chapter 6 - Culture and Ethics: Facilitating Online Learning

 

*Michel Labour, Charles Juwah, Nancy White and Sarah Tolley
 
1. Introduction
One of the key attributes of online learning is the ability to reach people around the block and around the globe. This presents an unprecedented opportunity for tapping into the richness and diversity of learners, as well as a challenge to overcome some of the barriers we face working across and between languages and cultures. This potential is recognised in many of the case studies, for example:
"The potential of the Internet for delivering cost-effective and more accessible professional training is widely accepted… We wanted to exploit this potential to reach as many urban managers as possible in the Asia-Pacific region. Our aim is to deliver current, innovative and best practice oriented training material in a cost-effective and accessible manner. Delivering this workshop style Continuous Professional Development (CPD) online was essential to create a viable model of mass CPD by providing an alternative to sending professionals to regional United Nations and similar sponsored workshops." (Webster)
Learning and tutoring are very complex phenomena, much like "culture and ethics" that cannot easily be reduced to simple factors. Given this, the aim of our reflections is to suggest ways in which fellow tutors could anticipate and enhance the possible impact of culture and ethics in online communication and, consequently, in online learning.
As Warschaeur (1998) points out, one of the major changes in distance learning and tutoring is the renewed interest in culture in regards to online learning. It seems that many teachers are unsure as to how best to use "culture" in the learning and tutoring process. This is linked, in part, to Warschaeur's observation that there is a move from learner interaction with the machine to interaction with a variety of other people via the machine (arising from current socio-cognitive approaches to computer-assisted learning).
Some of the key questions revolve around how culture is, or is not, experienced online:
  • Is it easier to work across cultures free from visuals cues, which tap into our prejudices?
  • Is it harder without visual cues so that we miss sensitive cultural cues?
  • Just how do we maximise the diversity and respect for cultures while tutoring online?
The contributions for the content are drawn mainly from e-workshop sources and contributions including case studies, online discussions and chats. References given without dates are references to case study conference contributions details for which are given in Appendix A. This group used the online discussion space to collaborate, merge and synthesise a range of contributions into a cohesive presentation. They have chosen not to (and it is almost impossible to) attribute individual contributions. A full list of participants in the online discussion is listed in Appendix A.
 

2. Culture and Ethics

2.1 What is culture?

In this context, the concept of culture is associated with a coherent system of identifying attitudes, values, and frames of activities linked to a given pattern of behaviour (Sapir 1921 and 1967). What defines a culture is not the presence or absence of a certain cultural trait, but rather the way in which it pursues its objectives in a given direction. One way of doing this is to provide a system of accepted rules and standards of behaviour, in other words a 'code of ethical values'.

2.2 What are ethics?

Habermas (1990, pp 65, 85, 86-94, 158-159), in his treatise on moral consciousness and communicative action, defines discourse ethics as reasoned agreement (or valid norms) reached by individuals in a group or community through dialogue or communicative action. These norms, agreed by all participants in the group for the common interest of all, are motivated by the values of respect, truth, sincerity, fairness, equity of participation in the discussion and accountability. For the norms to be valid within a group, community or culture, they must be regulated through the protection of practice that enhances mutual understanding of the norms from other cultures.
"The problem we perceived was that people often do not know how to engage in supportive communication. Our competitive culture [UK] teaches adversarial communication - ie domination and control. An unhelpful result is a tendency for people to dogmatise one another rather than help one another to learn. A positively damaging result is a tendency for people to fight for domination - which, in an online environment, can result in flaming or withdrawal..." (Zimmer and Alexander)
In online communities as in any other, the ethical issues of respect for one another (regardless of gender, race, religion, class etc) such as truth, sincerity, fairness, equity of participation in discussion, decision-making and accountability are paramount for the effective operation and survival of the group as an entity. Zimmer and Alexander, and Kennedy and Duffy, each offer a technique to support such an ethical online community.

2.3 How is culture expressed online?

The predominant online learning context considered during the OTiS e-workshop was text based communication which appears to be a critical component of retaining one's cultural identity. However images are also important to cultural identity.
2.3.1 Text based communication
Online tutors may observe a great deal of cultural form from an 'international' student by the style and content of, for example, an email text. This form may be signalled by the:
  • choice of words,
  • formality of informality of writing,
  • amount of self-disclosure,
  • amount of willingness to take risks by sharing ideas or comments.
What is not always immediately accessible to the reader are the cultural meanings that the participant wishes to convey in the message via the choice of vocabulary, syntax or metaphor, etc.
There are some aspects that are invisible even in a face-to-face situation that can have implications for online facilitation, for example, religion and sexual orientation. As online tutors we should reflect on these questions:
  • Do we assume when someone has an accent that they are 'foreign' or that they lack a grasp of our language?
  • How does that change our perception of the words sent by a student?
  • How does the experience change online?
Robert Lado (1986, p54) proposes a threefold analysis in identifying units of culturally patterned behaviour:
  • First, there is the cultural 'form' of behaviour, identified functionally by members of that culture (eg 'learning' happens when you can memorise what the teacher has said).
  • Then, there are culturally determined levels of 'meaning' attributed to a given form of behaviour. Meaning can have a primary level (eg 'learning' to pass an examination) accompanied by secondary levels of meaning (eg 'learning' to make the teacher happy, for social acceptability, etc).
  • Finally, all meaningful behaviours are socially distributed in a particular way. Patterned 'distribution' (or frequency) of this sort, involves a complex combination of factors like time cycles, space locations and relationships to other units, etc (eg 'learning' happens in a school building, with a teacher between 8.30 a.m. and 4.30 p.m., from Monday to Saturday morning, with the exception of Wednesdays).
The totality of this culturally patterned behaviour is underpinned by cultural literacy (Lado). Finkelstein examines this concept in his case study:
"In the context of cultural studies, one very positive point about utilising electronic tutorials and the Web was the opportunity it gave students to be exposed to, reflect upon and comment on the growing influence of and changes wrought by computers and cyberspace culture on society today. Comparing cultural identities and institutions as fixed in their present physical and mental surroundings, with such identities as reconstituted in cyberspace, as we did, for example, with our first assignment comparing real and virtual museums, provoked strong and considered responses from students. It was a valuable way of introducing and discussing cultural theories utilising examples drawn from immediate contexts and virtual spaces." (Finkelstein)
The cultural frequency/distribution of what was said might not be obvious for the reader of the text, eg praising people's performance may be acceptable and common in the USA but is rarer in a country like France. These misunderstandings may be compounded by delays caused by asynchronous learning due to different time zones between participants.
2.3.2 Images
Images can produce a strong reaction in students can convey, ideas, associations and emotions more quickly than text. Webster, for example, describes the use of a 'building metaphor' in a multi-cultural context:
"The Virtual Policy Studio (VPS) was designed around a building metaphor. We customised WebBoard to create a virtual policy studio, which functions something like a virtual clubhouse for urban managers in the region. A training corridor provides access to a tutor's office, personal study rooms, a lounge, and a group exercise room. The personal study rooms have full conferencing and chat facilities and access to a Resource Room, which in any particular workshop contains structured course material." (Webster)
What are the implications of our choice and use of visual metaphors and images? What underlying assumptions and values influence our choice and what impact do these images have in other cultures?
For example: commonly used software makes extensive use of icons. Can we assume that these are universally recognised throughout the world? An example is the navigation bar of most Internet browsers that show a traditional concept of a 'European home' designed for the nuclear family. Is this recognised as a symbol for 'home'? How does this affect other cultures? Institutions need to make such icons multicultural, a difficult task but essential task.
This is an issue online tutors will need to address as the use of multiple media, such as pictures, graphics, simulations, video and audio, becomes more common and wide-spread.

 

 

2.4 The value of diversity

Diversity is difference and there is richness in diversity, which is underpined by variety.
Variety is present in the form of gender, race, ethnicity, culture, creed, status, knowledge, skills level and life experiences. Diversity enriches the learning environment and the quality of learning and enhances learners' intercultural experience.
In online learning, diversity in itself forms a rich and valuable learning resource, which both tutors and students can use:
  • to help them better understand aspects of other participants' culture,
  • to help them understand how these cultural differences can affect learning and interaction online.
How can tutors minimise misunderstandings and use cultural variations as springboards to enhance online learning?
Clearly, there is no one 'right' method. The online tutor needs to be flexible to the range of possibilities and make an appropriate selection from a variety of approaches depending on the context. This requires cultural literacy or knowledge about the world that enables us to effectively communicate, interact and socialise with others. The lack of accurate cultural information about our own or others ethnic groups may result in us being misinformed about other cultures and cause cultural shock, hurt or conflict.
We attempt to address some of these questions, issues and concerns in the remainder of this chapter by providing guidelines to facilitate online tutoring which focus on self-awareness, and transparent and open facilitation.

3. Self-awareness and online presence

When considering cultural issues it is important for us to consider our own starting point. We need to raise our self-awareness by reflecting on how we assess ourselves and how we communicate with, and present ourselves to, others:
  • by what we say,
  • by how we say it (ie in a formal/informal way).
This in itself is a cultural exercise. For example, in presenting oneself to establish an identity and place online, we can describe visible signs of recognition: race, gender, social status, age, place of residence, and personal interests and tastes. What and how much information is exchanged can have a major impact on the online learning community.
Online communication can be very liberating and is able to provide opportunities and remove or reduce barriers. As Labour describes:
"… [it] allows learners to practice the target language with native speakers living in their own country. This represents an important complementary facet to learning English in a country like France where English is not a dominant language. Online learning also allows contact between people from different social backgrounds and profiles who would not always dialogue in a face-to-face (educational) context. This type of learning tends to encourage learners to be autonomous and tolerant, if nothing else, in order to maintain contact with their email partners." (Labour)
However some problems can arise in transnational conferencing where issues of status and hierarchy can influence the community, as Tolley reports:
"Various problems arise that are specific to transnational conferencing. The first is formality. Given the wide range of forms of address that are considered necessary in a lot of European countries it is important observe the formalities at the start of a conference like this. My solution is to invite participants to introduce themselves formally and then to negotiate a more informal mode of address. This approach was particularly successful with a Sicilian professor, who was delighted at being addressed by his first name, something that simply could not happen in his university." (Tolley)
Gwynne and Chester adopted an approach whereby their students, wholly online, interact via aliases to self-reflexively explore the issues of identity and community in a qualitatively different teaching/learning environment while addressing issues of gender and cultural equity.
"Students were required to have no face-to-face contact with each other during the semester.
"To further stimulate life online and encourage a sense of pseudonymity, all students selected an alias in the first week and they were only known to the others in their group by their aliases.
"We hoped the use of pseudonyms would create a context of "managed ambiguity" (Jaffe, Lee, Huang, and Oshagan, 1995), permitting relationship, while offering an opportunity to actively conceal or reveal elements of real life identity. This process that Walther (1996) describes as self-selection, allows traits such as race, gender, and age to be 'revealed through performance rather than appearance.' (p.20)
"We only knew the students by their aliases. We did not know their real names, their gender, their age or whether they were part time or full time students." (Gywnne and Chester)
What is of particular importance is linking information we have available to questions such as:
  • How does this influence me as an online facilitator?
  • What assumptions and biases am I likely to be prone to?
  • Where does my intuition and experience serve me?
  • Where am I stepping into unknown/known territory?
  • How might my disclosure of any/all of this affect others in the group?
This can have important implications for online tutors. For example, many case studies describe introductory exercises designed to promote interaction and generate a sense of community amongst the learners. The majority of these exercises involve some form of self-introduction as part of the exercise, as these examples illustrate:
"I start each class with a 'two truths and one lie' exercise to establish a culture of interaction and collaboration, (tell two 'truths' and one 'lie' about yourself and ask classmates to vote on which is the lie)." (Kulp)
"In the first instance (usually week one), the main aim is to encourage participation and discussion. This is achieved by a variety of methods, including mimicking conversational introductions and dialogue, and making controversial statements on the topic, for students to respond to." (Street)
"...have found that asking the students to provide a short introduction and a description of their job role usually reveals areas they have in common and breaks the ice. A private conference, open only to students, also helps them to establish a sense of community, albeit virtual." (Creanor)
"We use chat to create a sense of immediacy and connection. The first chat comes at the end of the first week and is about getting to know each other, starting sometimes with things as simple as the weather (as our students come from many parts of the world and the US, and that is always kind of funny). We use a "clock" protocol that we introduce previously with the telephone conference call to ensure everyone has a chance to "speak" and have a sense of the group in the absence of physical presence. Theoretically all students had already introduced themselves in the asynchronous conference environment and filled in their profiles, so these introductions are more casual and play off of what they have learned about each other during the week. Then each person comments on their experiences of the first week. This "round" is very affirming as folks are a little more open, less formal in chat and it is OK to say "I feel this" or "I feel that". People talk about how this experience helps them feel reassured and more connected to the group." (White and Moussou)
These examples raise issues such as the acceptability of lying (Kulp), reproducing face-to-face scenarios (Street) and judging the borderline between 'controversial' and offensive (Street). Most communities become established because the participants have something in common. As online tutors we have to identify appropriate areas to begin this bonding process, eg participants presenting and discussing information about each other (Creanor and White and Moussou) or forming impressions through working together towards a common end (Gwynne and Chester).
A key benefit that is often claimed for online communities is that they help to reduce prejudice, preconceptions and misconceptions that can arise through normal face-to-face situations. We need to consider carefully how much of the face-to-face signals and cues we reproduce online and how much information we share, eg biographies, photographs, hobbies, interests, and how we replace the perceived gap in our knowledge of other group members.
"Gender issues became apparent in the tutor conferences at an early stage, when it was assumed (by a male tutor) that the person providing technical help, who had a non gender specific name, was male. His defence that "people should state their gender where it isn't obvious" led to the only outbreak of flaming within the tutor conference. Other researchers have also noted this assumption being made by male students." (Morrison)

3.1 Action Tips

Online tutors may wish to work with a group of peers to explore their cultural identity and assumptions (see Finkelstein, Gwynne and Chester, Labour), for example:
  • How are they expressed offline?
  • How are they expressed online?
  • Where are there gaps in cultural 'competence' and opportunities for further learning?
The use of private or public discussion rooms (eg Webster, Creanor) or 'journal spaces' can be a useful tool for both student and tutor self-assessment and reflection. (Cowan, Ehmann, Hird, Mohamad, and White and Moussou offer a range of perspectives on the use of journals). For a contrasting perspective on private spaces see Clarke, while Murray suggests a negotiated agreement on what will be made public and will kept private.
Also check out Canney Davidson and Ward's 'cultural value checklist' available at: http://www.mcgraw-hill.co.uk/tpr/international_teams/it_interventions.html, taken from their book 'Leading International Teams'' (1999).

4. Language

Language is an important element of cultural identity. It enables us to communicate ideas, beliefs, values and feelings. The choice of language will have an impact on communication and consequently on learning.
The table in Figure 1 (appendix B) summarises the typology of online learning communities by some of the major spoken languages.

4.1 Which language to use?

Communication and learning are more effective where the participants are relatively competent and fluent in the language being used. On the other hand, the Internet offers the potential for international collaboration and the provision of courses, which attract participants from around the world who bring different languages and cultures. In such a case, it is argued, a common language is needed to allow participants to communicate, learn and collaborate together successfully (as in Higgison).
4.1.1 English as the common language
English, it is argued, is the language of commerce and the Internet. Many providers of internationally available online learning opportunities, such as the UK Open University (see Macdonald, Morrison, Salmon and Tolley), use English as the common language. This rationale was also the basis of using English in the multinational courses described in Higgison, Kennedy and Duffy, McFarlane, McKenzie, Scheuerman et al, Webster and White and Moussou.
A caveat: English was the language used during the OTiS e-Workshop, because the organisers are based in the UK. The call to participate in the e-workshop was issued only in English and the participants were self-selecting in that they chose to submit a case study and participate in the e-workshop. All the case studies cited above describe courses which are provided by institutions and organisations based in countries where English (whatever version) is the 'native' language.
We should also question the view that English is a common language amongst countries like the USA, the UK, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. Although the majority of the e-workshop participants spoke English as their first language there were many misunderstandings and different interpretations of the meanings of key terms such as 'tutor', 'assessment' and 'evaluation' as an excerpt from an online discussion on the OTiS e-workshop about one of the case studies (Creanor) demonstrates:-
The participants in this discussion were from the USA, UK and France. Their suggestion of a shared database or lexicon of common terms has arisen in other contexts.
4.1.2 Accommodating language differences
In forcing learners to limit themselves to one language (eg English), some participants may feel at a disadvantage at being unable to express themselves fully. This language barrier may pose considerable challenges and a block to learning for some non-native speakers of English. Less fluent speakers of a language may take a longer time in composing or drafting their messages or responses to discussions and activities. This becomes crucial in synchronous conferences in which immediacy is paramount.
Some argue that the asynchronous nature of many online learning opportunities compensates for this disadvantage by allowing time for reflection and to write contributions, but does not take into account other factors. For example, English language speakers from different countries/cultures, and people with different writing skill sets will have different levels of willingness to take risks. This may lead to a greater reticence to contribute (eg Kennedy and Duffy) or may lead to more formality than the learner might typically use (eg Tolley). Cameo 1 clearly demonstrates the feelings of an online learner who found it difficult fully participating in a learning situation as a result of language barrier.
Cameo 1, Language Barriers LO19386 - consulted 23 July 2000.
Some case studies describe online courses developed and delivered in a language other than English (for example Blom, Doufexopoulou, Eger and Vacek, Haragus, Lustigova and Zelenda, Mikulecka and Poulova, Mohamad, Nurmela, Spoustova, and Tammelin). However, participants on these courses tend to be restricted to the country of origin.
4.1.3 Native and non-native speakers
A major issue regarding language usage is where the learning community consists of both native and non-native speakers. A key problem is finding the right level of communication with which all learners are comfortable. The use of jargon or colloquialisms may be a source of misunderstanding and confusion for some non-native speakers. Therefore, it is very important for tutors to use 'plain language' and have excellent "communication skills (clear, brief, entertaining)" (Kulp). Online tutors need to show patience in supporting these learners.
One way of reducing this type of anxiety and apprehension is to encourage learners to comment on the use of the chosen language and discuss which other language(s) they would have been the most comfortable with (for example see Janes).
The issue of language usage could be quite emotive for some learners and may raise for example such questions as:
  • How participants feel about communicating online. If they feel the medium corresponds to their idea of furthering intercultural understanding. For example, there may be difficulties in participating because the language of discourse is not always elegant or well thought out as described in Cameo 2.
Cameo 2, Language Barriers LO19390 - consulted 23 July 2000.
Cameo 3 shows how other learners empathise and can support their peers in learning.
Cameo 3, Language Barriers LO19389 - consulted 23 July 2000.
  • Stereotyping, be it open or hidden, can be particularly destructive. For example, carelessly saying to a learner whose native language is not English that his/her language is 'very bad and not up to scratch' will be very de-motivating.
4.1.4 Supporting multiple languages
In certain online learning situations it may be appropriate to use, or even promote, the use of two or more languages - to help enhance meaning and the understanding of knowledge for the learners. Daele, Janes, Labour and Noakes report examples where courses have been designed as multi-lingual or have adapted to meet a lack of language skills (Sitharam and Shimizu).
"The course materials are in English but tutorial support and online discussions can be in English or Spanish. If a student registers for this course via UBC [Canada] then all work, reading and discussions are done in English. If the student registers via ITESM [Mexico] then Masters' students have the option to discuss online and with their Spanish speaking instructors in Spanish. … Many of the UBC registered students come to the course with English as a second language but are aware that the work is conducted in English. However any group work can be conducted in any language agreed to by the group. Submitted works must be in English. Several of our UBC instructors have been taking intensive Spanish language instruction." (Janes)
"...the assumption that students were sufficiently fluent in English to undertake the course, which was mostly designed in English proved not to be correct. Later attempts were made to integrate some specific terms in both languages with the help of a colleague and students, who were also instrumental in such a development… web education oriented towards Japanese students opens another area of bilingual education media development." (Sitharam and Shimizu)
A conflict can arise where such a need is clearly demonstrated but not met, as for example in Higgison. This case study reported on how the online participants were led to question the assumption of an 'English language only' approach when they found a need to create a glossary of specialised terms in their own language which did not previously exist. The creation of a glossary in the learners' own language was to enable them make sense of and to meaningfully engage in learning. This example clearly highlights how online learning can be used to encourage respect for language-cultural diversity. Higgison describes a course delivered to participants in eleven Central European countries. Legal restrictions imposed by the University hosting the online discussions required that these had to be in English. Groups in some countries set up their own discussion facilities for own language discussions, but all the course materials and assessments were conducted in English (as in Janes).
In practical terms, one traditional feature of tutoring models from countries like Britain is the tendency to promote an 'English Only' approach (see Nuffield Report: The Next Generation 2000 at http://www.nuffield.org/language/news/nws_0023732.html and in doing so resist multi-linguilism and language change. (Ellis, 1994, p236)
On the one hand, this can be explained by a natural reflex to conserve the reassuringly familiar (Shorris, 2000, p36). On the other hand, researchers, like Phillipson (1992, pp145-168), show that this tendency is based on a self-interested (economic) strategy by claiming to promote international co-operation and peace in using a language like 'Standard English'. In a detailed study on the subject, Phillipson (1992, p285) exposes the fallacies underlying the 'English Only' approach, including the myth that language diversity has been a major cause of conflict between people.
The dangers of down playing the respect for language and cultural diversity in favour of standardised languages, is brought home by the work of linguists like Michael Krauss, specialist of dead and dying languages (Shorris, 2000, pp35-36). Looking at the present situation, Krauss estimates that as many as 3,000 languages, or half of the words on Earth, will die in the next century.
In the light of this, if the respect of cultural diversity is to be encouraged, the use of a widespread language like English should not serve to help kill off other languages and the cultures associated with them. Its use, as an intercultural mode of communication, should rather be that of being flexible enough to accommodate other languages and inevitable language changes to the English language. This is no easy task. New strategies in online reading and writing may have to be developed.

4.2 Style of communication

Cross-cultural learning groups present a wonderful opportunity to benefit from diverse views and experiences, often far beyond what learners might find in their local, offline community. Online groups, like all learning communities , need 'ground rules' to guide people in how to interact with each other. Zimmer, Harris and Muirhead examine this topic in more detail in Theme 3 - 'Building an Online Community'.
4.2.1 Formal or informal communication?
'Ground rules' may address how participants wish to identify themselves, the community's mode of operation and style of communication (formal/informal), and frequency of participation. They can help reduce learner worries about offending each other by overstepping unknown boundaries.
The key here is to be explicit about things. One way of doing this is to allow participants to express their preferred social and cultural formalities in the opening introductions and presentations. Most online forums adopt an informal style of address in which participants including the tutor/facilitator are addressed by their first names. However, this may not be true in all contexts. There could be a cultural or social need for some to remain formal. For example many Southern Europeans feel reassured with a preamble to open discussions, and those in the South and East of Europe tend to be keen on their titles. Some may prefer a period of relationship building while others are accustomed to "getting right to work" (Tolley).
 
4.2.2 Status of the written text
Whatever the online conversation style participants prefer, some may have deeply held feelings concerning the written text. Osterloh (1986, pp78-79) points out that in many non-Anglo American cultures the written text is seen as something more than an individual presentation or personal opinion, which can be challenged. Perception of differences of opinion in writing may be seen as an attack on the person or the person's group. This can be explained by the fact that in some cultures, the written text is seen as a "fixed unit in which everything is important ... (and) worth reading" (ibidum). Such a reader will not have been encouraged to distinguish between important and unimportant information. The emphasis will be not so much on the content, but essentially on the style and status of the author of the text. The higher the status of the author, the more authoritative the text and the less likely that it may be challenged. This makes the task of producing written text based on personal opinion particularly challenging for some learners. These learners will tend to rely more on collective opinion or that based of someone of higher recognised status than their own. Given that this type of written skill may not exist to the same extent in the 'native' tongue of the learner (Osterloh, 1986, pp81-82) it is up to the tutor to show the learner:
  • how to contradict someone politely,
  • how to join conversation,
  • how to draw attention to common points of view,
  • how to come to a conclusion,
  • how to generally depersonalise opinions and arguments (see action tips).

4.3 Action Tips

Developing an online (intercultural) writing style
  • Short, simple sentences.
  • Active modes of verbs and sentences (see http://www.plainenglish.co.uk/testing.html).
  • Explicitly define vocabulary.
  • Regular use of questions and tag questions to draw responses from learners.
Recognising the advantages of language change
There is consensus that we should communicate in a coherent and appropriate way. The question, however, is how to reconcile linguistic norms with the inevitable process of change and adaptation of the language. One criterion could be establishing how the online language is able to go beyond face-to-face and local communication needs.
Questioning language usage
The tutor may encourage learners to question problematic language norms with each other and with the tutor. Behind language-cultural norms and non-standard language there are often revealing cultural representations. For example, slang (and humour) "offers an index to changing perception based not on theories but on immediate experience" (McLuhan, 1964, p viii).
Tips for communicating with non-native speakers of English
  • Use uncomplicated language and clear explanations.
  • Write clearly and avoid slang and idioms.
  • Summarise what each person has written to assure each that you have understood.
  • Clarify and confirm that your explanation has helped the participant understand.
  • Check for understanding, avoiding 'Yes/No' questions.
  • Pause longer when waiting for responses; allow time for the other person to reply.
  • Allow non-native speakers to finish their sentences by themselves (many cultures are extremely comfortable with silence).
  • Remember that language fluency does not equal cultural fluency.
  • Encourage co-mediation as a positive approach to take advantage of different mediators' styles.
Adapted from Myers and Filner (1999) 'Mediation Across Cultures' available online at http://www.amedpub.com/worklife2k/divconflict.html.
See also Cowan, Kulp, Kennedy and Duffy, and Zimmer and Alexander for techniques to promote mutually supportive, non-confrontational learning communities.
Language-switching tolerance
The tutor can permit learners to refer occasionally to local languages when no other alternative is possible. It seems preferable for the learner to refer what he/she knows, albeit in a language other than English, rather than be systematically excluded due to the absence of appropriate competence by the reader. The text can later be translated. For example in Higgison, the participants of the 'English' version of the course later went onto translate the materials into their own languages and acted as tutors for local delivery of the course. Labour reports a strategy for intercultural communication in an email partnership project between native French speakers and English speakers. Participants are encouraged to use different languages, so a French speaker may write part of the email in French and part of it in English and vice versa; the primary focus is on the content and meaning not the language. Noakes expanded on language usage in his case study during the discussion:
"… in Hong Kong our Putonghua classes use written Chinese in their online forums, in the ESL online forums we use English, in the Japanese classes, written Japanese ... etc. But with multi-lingual groups who are not on a language course like the students we teach, then they revert to English. But students here who share the same first language of Cantonese are used to using instant messengers such as ICQ with a mix of English and Chinese characters - happily code switching between the two." (Noakes-D)
Exemplar lesson plans on interculturality
Originally aimed at language learning, the following online lesson plans are examples of how to use cultural resources in an educational context. They could be useful in defusing intercultural misunderstandings. These resources were accessed on 21 Feb 2001.

5. Silences and Humour as online interaction issues

5.1 Silences

In online intercultural communication, silences can occur either in the texts themselves, where certain topics are avoided, or in the irregular contribution of messages in asynchronous discussions. Some research into email communication for learning purposes (Labour) has found that the lack of relatively "immediate" response to students' emails is a major de-motivating factor. Depending on the culture, these silences can mean disapproval, approval, neutrality, an admission of guilt, or a sign of incompetence. (Ting-Toomey 1999 p216)
Edward Hall (1976) explains a cultural phenomenon like "silence" by splitting human interaction into low-context (eg Germanic countries) and high-context (eg China, Japan, Vietnam) cultures.
In low-context situations the emphasis is on personal and explicit verbal messages for which the writer assumes responsibility for its clarity. Words serve as a form of social control, while silence tends to be used as a form of tacit consent or a sign of failure (eg guilt, incompetence).
In high-context cultures meaning is based on an indirect style emphasising the implicit meaning of words in a given social context (eg the high/low status of the writer). The onus is on the reader to decode meaning from the socio-linguistic context, and not for the writer to send an explicit message that can be understood by all and sundry. This ability to read between the lines includes the understanding of the various registers of silence. In this way silence is used as a means of social control.
In some Asian contexts silences can be a sign of respect for the expertise of the other, or of displeasure. While in other cultures, like that of France, silence can be a form of neutral communication to keep a respectful distance from strangers, unlike many "European Americans … (who) tend to reserve silence for their most intimate relationship." (Carroll, 1987 in Ting-Toomey, 1999, p111)
We must be careful not to fall into the danger of generalising description of different cultures which can result in what Ting-Toomey (1999, p163) calls, "mindless stereotypes", ie a closed-ended, exaggerated over-generalisation of a group of people based on little or no external validity. The case studies report on a range of differing experiences regarding the success or otherwise of participation of non-native English speakers in online discussions, eg Glasson, Gwynne and Chester, Kennedy and Duffy, and Sitharam and Shimizu.
Given that individuals are not clones of any one culture, there will always be a range of diversity in a group. For example, in online learning some students gradually become aware of a reduction of traditional cultural barriers (Gwynne and Chester). This seems to be linked to the relative anonymity (in terms of gender, race, intercultural) of the medium, resulting in behaviour that differs from traditional face-to-face classroom behaviour. Given this, online tutors cannot assume to fully understand phenomenon like "silence" and other related issues (eg humour). It would be wiser to check and ask. This can be done in the online group environment, or behind the scenes in individual emails, faxes, or telephone calls.

5.2 Action Tips

It is important to allow to silences. Silence could mean the learner is:
  • too busy,
  • not present for the moment, eg holiday, illness, pressure of work,
  • following along just fine,
  • having difficulties,
  • waiting to be called upon,
  • uncomfortable responding to something, for example, with which the person disagrees,
  • in a position where the person feels there is nothing appropriate to say,
  • waiting for a difficult situation to 'cool down' before responding, (eg conflict, embarrassment),
  • taking the time to carefully word what to say,
  • unable to access the learning environment,
Asking learners to reply, or to give the reason for their silence, should be done regularly, but with tact and explaining why the subject is raised (quality control, checking all is well, etc). Learners are often not aware of the impact of their silence on other participants in the group or on the tutoring/learning process.

5.3 Humour

Humour is a very difficult area in online intercultural communication. Humour is both culturally specific and personal.
  • Some expressions of humour can be appropriate in one culture and completely inappropriate in a different culture.
  • Some individuals are less comfortable with humour than others.
  • Some humour is language specific, especially humour that relies on plays on words (puns) or slang.
However, humour is also a way in which we can communicate our 'humanness' in a technologically mediated environment, helping bridge the distance and lack of physical communication cues. Play as a form of interaction can also provide a "safe" place to experience online learning environment and tools if applied with care and sensitivity (White and Moussou).
The use of games or play should also be used with a great deal of awareness and context. Cultural attitudes about being 'serious' must be surfaced. That said, a right dose of fun can facilitate the learning process through improved interaction (Gwynne and Chester). To achieve this, humour and other recreational activities (if possible linked to the learning content) need to be first run through a filter, and perhaps also discussed afterwards with learners to make sure they have not got the wrong end of the stick.

5.4 Action Tips

The personal use of humour by a tutor must be made in the context of the tutor's self-awareness or 'filters'. Tutors can check their filters with the following tips:
  • Does the humour rely on language/slang that may not be understood across the group (as in face-to-face situations)?
  • If the humour is deprecating, is it self-deprecating and free of implications for others in the group (as in face-to-face situations)?
  • Are you using visual cues or setting a context to make sure the readers are clear you are making a joke or using humour? You can use emoticons (text based smiley faces, eg 'Windweaver Guide to Emoticons' available online at http://www.windweaver.com/emoticon.htm) or words to clearly tag a message as an attempt at humour so no one would doubt the intent.
  • Is the humour used in appropriate spaces/context? Do not make a joke in the middle of a serious dialogue. Save it for social spaces, or, rarely, as a tension breaker. That is a very delicate application and harder to do online than offline.
  • Do you have a sense of the group's interest/capacity to use humour? Start small, sense the reception. If someone comes back with HEHEE or LOL (laughing out loud) you will know the comment was read in the spirit intended. If not, then you might need to check to see if anyone has understood the attempt at humour or has been offended by it. Ask, do not assume.
  • Explore using culturally based humour as a learning experience carefully. This is a very delicate option. For example, when using role playing to show how to work with a difficult interchange online, people have less of a filter to discern that another is 'play acting'. Even with an explicit notice of role playing, participants seem to have a hard time keeping an assumed role from the 'real' role assigned to the experience of another person.
  • Use humour with intent. If working on developing a sense of warmth in a group, and working on facilitating relationship building, a self-deprecating warning about one's humour is in line. If behaving more formally, use humour with a much lighter hand.
  • Humour Gone Wrong: recognise and admit mistakes.

6. Tutor and Learner roles

"Values underlying the production and transmission of knowledge are very culturally dependent. These can manifest themselves in teaching and learning systems and hence in the relationship between student and 'teacher'. When these values and relationships 'translate' to the online environment, they may become rapidly quite apparent." (Gilly Salmon during an OTiS online chat on Cultural and Ethical issues).

6.1 Brief pedagogy of online learning

Constructivism is the main pedagogy used in online learning. This approach is used in the form of discussions, constructivist activity and conferencing to enable the learner to build an understanding and the meaning of the issues and to construct new knowledge on the basis of information (O'Reilly and Morgan, 1999). This interactive mode of learning shown in Figure 2: 'Concept diagram of Interactive Learning' (appendix C), is underpinned by:
  • the learner's active role and participation in the creation of knowledge - significance of experience (individual and social) in the knowledge creation process,
  • the variation in the degree of validity and accurate representation,
  • the recognition that construction of knowledge is influenced by biological factors, language and socio-cultural interactions.
    In this mode of learning, the tutor's role is that of being a guide, motivator or facilitator, and in some cases, a 'co-learner' (Brooks and Brooks, 1993).
Salter provides a detailed definition of constructivism and, along with Clarke and Salmon, documents examples of constructivism in action.

6.2 Tutor-student relationship

For a majority of cultures, particularly non-English speaking cultures, tutoring is seen as teacher-led, formal activity, with academic achievement being highly valued socially. Therefore, a lot of emphasis is placed on the formal and scheduled acquisition of skills and on the assessment of learning. In these cultures, for example African and Asian, the tutor is well respected and the tutor-student relationship is formal. The tutor is formally addressed and very rarely do tutors get addressed by their first names, although this is changing. Kennedy and Duffy, Sitharam and Shimizu, and Gwynne and Chester report on the potential of online learning to change the tutor-student relationship.
This view of tutoring contrasts to the Western English-speaking tutoring system that lays great store in a learner-centred approach to encourage autonomous learning (self-regulation, self-mediation, self-awareness, etc). Emphasis is placed on skills development and a flexible approach is adopted for the assessment of learning. Tutor-student relationships tend to be informal.
Kennedy and Duffy report on the styles of interaction exhibited by students from a Western English speaking culture (UK) and an Asian non-English speaking culture (Hong-Kong).
From a modal perspective of online delivery, the shift is to learning communities with less emphasis on the tutor as 'sage on the stage' and more on the guiding and facilitative functions. Part of this is cultural, and part of it is how the medium is best being used. Online communication lends itself to dialogue and negotiation as it allows both the learner and the tutor to test understanding, which might be evidenced offline in the form of body language or signs of attention. Online, the tutor does not know what a student does or does not understand unless he/she asks!
Cornelius and Higgison provide a more detailed consideration of these issues in Theme 2: 'The Tutor's Role and Effective Strategies for Online Tutoring'.

6.3 Diversity of learners

"It is not our purpose to become each other; it is to recognise each other, to learn to see the other and honour him for what he is." (Hermann Hesse, German author and poet, and recipient of the 1946 Nobel Prize for literature.)
The Internet is a 'melting pot' in which people of different races, creed, gender status and abilities meet to share experience and skills with each other, and to learn from each other. It is one of the challenges of a learning community to establish how these differences and similarities can be used to help achieve the learning needs of the group. For example, Daele reported that online students had the same concerns and questions despite coming from various institutions and countries.
As Ting-Toomey (1999, p22) points out, most intercultural miscommunication are caused by "well-meaning" clashes, where each person behaves according to his/her own cultural norms, rather than by deliberate unpleasantness. To help prevent such miscommunication, participants of intercultural communities may have to be encouraged to better understand the implications of working with people from diverse backgrounds. This understanding involves recognising that there exist other human qualities outside the group to which a person belongs, and which can constitute part of the online identity of the person.
With the increased access to the Internet, people who traditionally have little voice in the decision making process of society (disabled people, women, children, little-taught-language populations) can be encouraged to participate more in online learning and decision making through online interaction. This can greatly be enhanced by having appropriate multicultural approaches and content online so to increase the appeal of web based resources. For example, online facilities that cater for the needs of the visually and hearing impaired can be found online at:
To ensure that diversity is appropriately catered for in online learning situations, it is of paramount importance that the learning environment and resources:
  • are accessible to all including learners with disability (eg http://www.disabilityhistory.org/about.html,
  • provide intercultural interaction and cross cultural communication,
  • promote a transformational and inclusive learning - through content which allows for views, multi-perspectives, infusion of experience and active learning experience (Gorski, 1999).
Claudia L'Amoreaux summed up the benefits of a culturally enriched online learning as experienced by young learners as "they had gained uncanny wisdom about encountering obstacles: language and time zone barriers, expectations and disappointment, technological hurdles, conflict management and resolution" http://www.creatinglearningcommunities.org/book/internet/lamoreaux1.htm.
To avoid diversity issues causing a block to learning in an online environment, online tutors/facilitators need to address a number of issues.
·  Access In designing the curriculum, online tutors/facilitators should give due consideration in ensuring access to people who are disabled. For example, the learning environment may be provided with audio facilities, for the blind and the visually impaired. Avoid frames or provide a text only version of web sites.
·  Use of colours
·  Tutors should where possible avoid the use of red colour as people who are colour blind have difficulty reading writings in red ink.
·  Spell check
·  Tutors should ensure that spell check facilities are available for use by those who are dyslexic.
·  Content Tutors/facilitators of learning should include in the content of the learning materials, appropriate items that reflect the diversity of the learning community.
·  Be culturally aware and sensitive to issues of disability, gender, race, language, religion etc.
·  Avoid stereotyping.
·  Help the group set ground rules for interacting with members of the group.
·  Avoid assumptions, eg attributing gender to a name say Hyacinth, Michel, Grace.
·  Always endeavour to ask for clarification on any points made by a learner that she/he does not understand.
·  Do not be judgemental or show bias on any personal beliefs by ignoring a learner.
·  Avoid the use of humour that can cause offence to any group on the grounds of disability, gender, race, sexuality, religion etc.
·  Sensitively support learners who are finding language a barrier to their learning, particularly non-native speakers of English (Myers and Filner, 1999 - http://www.amedpub.com/worklife2k/divconflict.html).

6.4 Action Tips

Transparent facilitation
Due to different cultural models of tutoring, it is advisable that tutors are explicit and transparent about their tutoring techniques (eg White and Moussou). However challenging it may be, learners and tutors may need help in being open, willing to take risks and not to always be in 'authority', in order that they fully participate in the online community. In particular, for participants who express difficulty in communicating in the language of reference, the role of the tutor would be to encourage them by:
  • making rules, norms, expectations, learning content and skills explicit and explaining the reason for doing something,
  • checking that they have really understood what is expected of them,
  • focusing on learners' strengths rather than weaknesses (asset-based approach),
  • drawing on learners' prior knowledge and experiences,
  • promoting multiple perspectives and representations of content and ways of doing things,
  • identifying and suggesting ways of resolving online misunderstandings, eg confusion between cultures by putting the learner in the shoes of the other person (see Lado above),
  • helping learners negotiate meaning, give corrective feedback and self-repair, and generally monitor their own work, for example by referencing and examining archived materials,
  • reminding them that errors and mistakes are the natural products of the creative learning process, and that not all errors and mistakes are of the same importance,
  • emphasising the completion of the task at hand, and stressing the active role that learners can play in the knowledge creation process (constructivist approach to learning),
  • highlighting online interactive skills (eg greetings, gender relations, tactful criticisms, as well as "input modification" strategies like repetitions, confirmations, reformulations, comprehension checks, recasts, confirmation checks and clarification requests etc),
  • getting them to participate in formative assessment (to inform future learning) and to use summative assessment to measure significant change or learning achieved by learners and as a motivator to the learning process,
  • exploring ways of having a little fun online, eg exchanging 'national' jokes and puns,
  • suggesting where they could get appropriate help, including online organisations that welcome and guide international students.
By adopting the tips listed above tutors have the opportunity to really take advantage of the differences and richness arising form a diversity of cultures in facilitating online learning. The advantages of these valuable cultural differences might be missed if the 'sage on the stage' tutoring mode were adopted.

 

 

 

7 Using online sources ethically

7.1 Copyright and Intellectual Property Rights

One of the most important ethical issues which online learning raises, is that of 'fairness', ie giving due credit or acknowledgement to the work of others. A commonly held view is that they Internet is 'free' and the resources and materials it provides access to are also free. The Internet and its resources are not perceived to be subject to the same controls and regulations as would be the case in other publishing media, and hence the same rul