Online Tutoring e-Book - CHAPTER 2 - The Tutor's Role

*Sarah Cornelius and Carol Higgison

2. Online tutoring: an emerging pedagogy

"We need to develop a new educational philosophy relevant for online tutors. Traditional educational philosophies have limited value since they rely on face-to-face interaction between students and tutor. Other aspects that make online learning different include the sheer numbers of questions that people have about online learning and the absence of visual clues, which in turn raises the issue of cultural markers. If a new online education philosophy can be created it will help to address tutor questions about what is effective and not effective" (Muirhead-D 2000f).

2.1 Can we learn from face-to-face pedagogy?

Many of the e-workshop participants recognise the similarities of online tutoring with face-to-face pedagogy, (eg encouraging, probing, eliciting, and enabling reflection) yet still are against the use of face-to-face pedagogy. (Rosie-D 2000a)

"The lecturers found that online teaching is not the same as face-to-face classes. Flexibility is the key. They found that you cannot assume that the skills and pedagogy of face-to-face teaching will be appropriate in cyberspace. One has to be open to change and open to the lessons both in their delights and dangers that teaching online can offer ... Teaching in cyberspace also gave them a chance to (re)view the familiar in their educational practice, thereby using their life online to inform their face-to-face teaching. Several writers have already begun to note that debates about technologies are leading to a (re)viewing of pedagogy." (Gwynne and Chester)

2.2 What is different about online tutoring?

In the online environment the tutors are the interface between the institution and the student. Tutors need to understand both the environment in which they are working and the teaching techniques that are effective in this environment:

"Good online teaching requires from the tutor/moderator sound 'understanding' of this specific, newly created environment." (Radic)

At present online learning environments are predominantly text based. A tutor may be involved in activities such as support, discussion, collaboration and moderation using text based communication. These interactions may be synchronous or asynchronous, and the use of multimedia, audio, video, graphics, shared applications and shared workspaces may be necessary.

The tutoring techniques used in this environment differ considerably from those used in face to face situations (Mottley) and preparation of activities may rely more heavily on teamwork with instructional designers, multimedia specialists, and other technical experts all working with alongside the subject expert (Neal). The design of learning activities should consider the distinguishing features of the online learning environment:

the absence of cultural markers (physical appearance, speech and voice, ethnicity, race) (Rosie-D 2000b; Muirhead-D 2000f),
the different nature of interaction between student and tutor (Muirhead-D 2000f),
the use of a different kind of text - at present, online communication is primarily text and image based, and text is presented as spoken text in written 'form' (Rosie-D 2000b; 2000c),
the need to encourage reflection and deep learning - it is questioned whether the use of technology facilitates 'surface learning' (Clarke-D 2000b).

2.3 What are the special demands that online tutors face?

Almost anyone who has taught online would argue that the demands on online tutors are different from those on face-to-face tutors, although the general issues and situations with which they must deal are, in essence, the same. The online tutor must manage a course, guide students throughout the learning experience, motivate them, interact with them, assess them and deal with any conflicts or difficulties. The differences in tutor role result from the characteristics identified above: the absence of non-verbal clues, the use of text as the main means of communications, and the constraints imposed by technology. However, any list of roles that can be produced should only be regarded as a general framework. The role the tutor adopts should change:

during a course (McKenzie-D 2000a),
in response to the needs and expectations of the students (Daele-D 2000a),
depending on the pedagogical model adopted, for example student-centred learning models work particularly well in online mode. (Daele-D 2000b; Hird-D 2000a)

As well as the demands on online tutors being different, they are also perceived to be greater, partly because of the focus on the tutor and the relative invisibility of other support services:

"The demands on online tutors are much greater than those on face-to-face tutors in terms of roles, partly because the tutor is a more intense focus for relationships, than in face-to-face environments, where course administrators, and other staff, are more accessible, and partly because of the technology issue." (McKenzie-D 2000a)

It is clear that online tutoring is different from face to face teaching and the examples that follow will demonstrate that there is no single 'correct' way to tutor online. The definition of the tutor's roles and activities must be understood within each specific context. The teaching/learning settings, the constraints of the environment, status of the learners and the tutor, and the pedagogical model must all be understood in order to provide an effective online learning experience for students. Above all the tutor should be flexible.

3. Perspectives on Online Tutoring

"Changing the roles of academics and teachers challenges established patterns and creates concern, horror even, in those who believe we risk quality; in learning provision." (Salmon, 2000 p.89)

The tutor's role is examined here from three viewpoints:

the student's perspective
what the tutor should do - what activities a tutor should perform,
what the tutor should be - what roles a tutor should play.

3.1 The student perspective

Active participation by students

Students are quick to recognise the changed role of their tutor in online activities. They also acknowledge that online learning makes special demands on both student and tutor:

"The teacher's role was not anything like in conventional situations, where the teacher tells exactly what to learn. In a telematics-based environment the teacher is more or less just another participant, though very active one and the teachers role as an organiser is greatly emphasised. So in this way it is much more efficient to learn to communicate, and learning is not just a one-way street." (Tammelin)

"My own concept about learning online changed! I suggested learning would be easier than it turned out to be. You need time and you must really be involved for studying. This came clear in small group working where every member had their own tasks. So we can forget comments about how easy studying online is. As a matter of fact learning and tutoring online demands more than traditional studying at least at the beginning of it." (Nurmela)

Challenges facing students

Muirhead outlines the problems and challenges that students may face, for example:

students may feel isolated from other learners and tutors,
students may face communication problems with other students or tutors (eg inadequate feedback),
students who are constantly late in posting their weekly comments and students who fail to do their group-work can have a negative impact on the quality of interaction,
students may struggle with writing online comments and work for assessment.

Responsibilities facing students

Students need to be encouraged to take some responsibility for their own learning. The students themselves have an important role to play to facilitate effective learning (Janes-D 2000b):

they should be able to construct their own learning,
they will have their own issues and agenda (yet the problems they face are often 'global'),
they need to manage their own time,
it is useful if they are proactive and willing to take risks,
they need to 'trust'.

Tutors as learners

Many case studies endorsed the view that online tutors need to experience online learning as a student before they can effectively support other online learners. Priest (2000), an online learner herself, provides an interesting reflective account of an online learning experience from the student's perspective. Priest suggests that an effective online program will help the working adult online student to succeed. She identifies the key elements that should be provided for a successful program:

Support services

Information on how the university functions and how it relates to individuals, together with assistance with administration and enrolment matters.

A social context for learning

Membership of a learning community to allow the development of relationships with other students and provide support and feedback. Group-work can help with this.

Effective online communication and teaching practices

Sensitive online instruction and support, ie tutors who can ask the right questions, probe for information, and provide clear and detailed instructions. Tutors also need to be accessible by means that do not involve a computer.

Clear guidance through the online curriculum

Clear instructions and details of requirements for assessment.

Tolerance for differences

Tutors who can guide and moderate discussions

Motivation

Tutors who can keep the online process on track and sensitively handle problems with progress and performance.

Tracking attendance

Students need to know that tutors can monitor attendance.

The students' ideal online tutor

From the student's perspective an online tutor should:

facilitate and nurture a learning community.
facilitate communication (including email and offline methods).
monitor attendance and contributions.
support process related activities, including learning skills.
provide access to administrative and other support.
provide sensitive online instruction (including group-work) and moderation.
guide students through their curriculum.
motivate.
tolerate differences.
help learners to achieve their objectives.

3.2 The activity-related perspective : what an online

tutor should do

Tutors as experts

As in face-to-face teaching, the online tutor must undertake a range of tasks and activities that call on a variety of skills. As a prerequisite we assume that online tutors have (Kulp):

expertise in their subject matter,
expertise in pedagogical issues,
technical skills.

Kulp suggests that in addition, tutors need to have skills in facilitation and written communications; time to commit to the course; previous experience as a student; and enthusiasm for the subject matter and online learning. (Kulp)

Tutor's tasks

Once the course has begun, the tutor must take on a variety of roles, as identified by Duggleby (2000):

welcoming learners,
encouraging and motivation,
monitoring progress,
ensuring learners are working at the right pace,
giving information, expanding, clarifying and explaining,
giving feedback on learners' work,
ensuring learners are meeting the required standards,
ensuring the success of conferences,
facilitating a learning community,
giving technical advice and support,
ending the course.

The need to 'end the course' might seem trivial, but it is important to have an appropriate activity or assessment to end a course or an individual learning activity. The enthusiasm of some students may lead to them placing additional demands on peers and tutors that are outside the remit of the course as this quote illustrates:

"Bringing closure to each course at the end of the semester continues to be a difficult issue. I have had several students request that the course site remains open as a forum for professional discourse. This does raise questions regarding faculty moderation of an on going discussion and maintaining student accounts may also exhaust the limits of the institution. s site licence. One strategy is to include on the course web site the information students need to join online discussions hosted by various professional associations. These can be phased in as a gradual replacement for the class online discussion" (Hird).

Giving technical advice and support were not mentioned in any of the case studies that provided lists of tutor activities. However, almost all case studies noted the need for establishing and maintaining communications, and initiating and supporting learning activities.

Tutor guidelines

The Institute of Educational Technology at the UK Open University has produced a set of guidelines to help establish the quality of online tutoring on their courses. These guidelines are being piloted on current courses. Their recommendations focus closely on interactions with students. They consider that tutors should (Sharpe and Baume):

be supportive in tone,
demonstrate adequate knowledge of the course,
provide a guiding presence in the conferences,
answer direct requests for information,
follow the discussions,
provide summaries and feedback on the activities,
weave comments at appropriate points,
monitor the participation of all students in their allocated group.

By contrast, the Institute of Information Technology Training (IITT) has compiled a comprehensive list of tutor activities based on a Competency Framework - Online Tutors (IITT, 2000) (http://www.iitt.org.uk/c-onltutor.htm. Generally only a subset of these are required in each particular instance, according to the design and application of a particular learning programme.

Whichever list of roles and activities is referred to it is clear that tutors to be flexible in their roles. At the start of a course the tutor may be a social host, but may then need to change this role to suit student needs. Pastoral care or hard-nosed responses may be required, or even conflict mediation. Throughout a learning experience tutors need to act as models of good online behaviour, whilst at the same time monitoring and guiding other's behaviour (McKenzie-D 2000a).

3.3 The role-related perspective : what an online tutor should be

The role of manager is one of the most important for an online tutor.

"At the beginning (the) role is 'managerial' (organizing work, agenda, deadlines, providing resources)" (Daele-D 2000a).

"As to the roles of the teacher, his or her role as a manager emerges as the key role. Among the other teacher roles are the roles of the producer, novice, expert, motivator, moderator, co-learner, team member, resource specialist and assessor. Even though it can be argued that the teacher (roles) identified above are not necessarily bound to a network-based learning environment, many of the same roles may be apparent in any modern classroom where teaching and learning are in line with the constructivist conception of learning. However, in an online classroom, teachers need to be increasingly aware of these roles and they need to be capable of role switching in a flexible manner"(Tammelin).

Classification of roles

As a first step towards awareness of the roles of an online tutor, there are many published classifications to which we can refer. These include Berge (1995), Collins and Berge (1997), Harasim, Hiltz, Telles and Turroff (1997) and Salmon (2000) (see also Salmon's case study). The most widely used of these classifications is Berge's (1995). This has four categories:

Technical - this involves making participants comfortable with the technology and ultimately to make the technology transparent.
Managerial - this includes setting the agenda, objectives, procedures and rules of the educational activities.
Pedagogical - this includes designing and delivering an appropriate educational experience, encouraging participation and fostering deep learning and reflection.
Social - this involves creating a learning community that supports and encourages students, monitoring progress and participation.

Collins and Berge, 1997 expanded the list to firefighter, facilitator, administrator, promoter, helper and participant, but the four categories above remain widely used.

The OTiS (Online Tutoring Skills) e-Workshop discussion considered twelve roles for the online tutor developed at a workshop on http://www.ibstpi.org),%20CSALT%20Lancaster%20University%20(http://csalt.lancs.ac.uk/csalt)%20and%20JISC/CALT%20(http://csalt.lancs.ac.uk/jisc).%20Details%20at%20http://csalt.lancs.ac.uk/Goodyear/cot/details.htm%20(accessed%2014%20Feb%202001).%20')">Competencies for Online Tutors : technologist, manager, co-learner, designer, knowledge expert, researcher, facilitator, assessor, adviser/counsellor, tutor and mentor. This classification of tutor roles is presented in Table 3.1 and compared with other published classifications. No significance is placed on the order of the roles in this table.

The OTiS classification included two roles not included in the published sources: those of researcher and mentor.

Researcher

As online tutors we are involved in a new and evolving pedagogy developing around online learning. As reflective practitioners we can examine and develop our practice through action research enquiry (Cowan), ie developing, reviewing and refining our practice in systematic and thoughtful way (see also Bailey, Radic, Salmon, Tammelin).

Mentoring

The role of mentor to new online tutors is an area of particular importance at a time when experience of online tutoring is still relatively rare. The use of mentors can be an important aid to newcomers to online teaching (Juwah, Macdonald, Morrison).

OTiS Discussion group 2000	Berge 1995	Harasim, Hiltz, Telles and Turoff 1997	Collins and Berge 1997	Salmon 2000
Technologist	Technical		Firefighter
Manager	Managerial	Planner	Administrator
Co-learner	Pedagogical		Participant	Information giving and receiving
Designer		Group structurer		Development
Knowledge expert				Knowledge construction
Researcher
Facilitator		Facilitator	Facilitator	Access and motivation
Assessor
Adviser/counsellor	Social	Guide	Promoter	Socialization
Tutor			Helper
Mentor

Table 3.1 Classifications of the Roles of an Online Tutor

Flexibility of roles

Online tutors need to demonstrate a flexible approach towards their roles (Tammelin). The word 'flexible' appears in several case studies which address tutor roles. These indicate the need for tutors to adapt to their online environment and be responsive to student needs:

"Staff were able to be flexible and pedagogically receptive; in reviewing the conferences it was established that staff had undertaken the following roles in the life- cycle of a conference: host, teacher, facilitator, motivator, moderator, assessor. Staff need to be prepared for the change in styles." (Street)

"The most significant barrier that I encounter in my online teaching is the need to develop a new understanding of my role and responsibilities as teacher in an online environment. As with any organizational change, there is a strong inclination on the part of both teacher and students to fall back into old roles and routines when the uncertainty of the new learning environment and interactions become uncomfortable." (Hird)

Allocation of roles

An important question is whether the full range of roles can actually be provided by a single online tutor. The full range of roles may be split between subject support and learner support (McKenzie-b, Macdonald) or allocated amongst a support team comprising, for example, 'local animator', 'tutor', 'professor' and 'co-ordinator' (Daele).

McKenzie describes how learning support tutors can be deployed alongside subject content tutors each with a different role and responsibility. Subject tutors act as an expert resource providing focused interventions relating to subject delivery. Learning support (or process) tutors can focus on developing long term relationships with learners over a longer period and provide continuity of support and help maintain a feeling of intimacy and motivation. As McKenzie recognises, this approach helps to create a community of people skilled in facilitating online discussion, in turn helping to develop high levels of expertise in the area that is not diluted by subject focus (McKenzie-b).

The UK Open University (OU) model is one example that demonstrates the separation of the provision of content by subject experts from online tutorial support during delivery. However, the OU's online tutors are still expected to have subject expertise and provide both subject and learning support (Macdonald, Salmon, Tolley, Zimmer and Alexander).

Daele and Finkelstein describe a broader approach where the role of the online tutor is viewed in the context of the complete learning module or programme. The online tutor may be part of a course team (Finkelstein) with complex interrelationships, responsibilities and roles (Daele).

In the next sections examples of practice in online tutoring are presented to give a richer picture of the role of the tutor and some pointers toward effective practice.

4. Examples of practice: experiences

Sections 4 and 5 present some 'real world' experiences of online tutoring. In Section 4 the experiences of individual tutors are reviewed, and reflections on a small number of online courses are presented. Section 5 follows with a closer look at the strategies and techniques employed to facilitate onliine learning.

4.1 Experiences of tutors

Adapting existing roles

Many OTiS participants have made the change from the ‘sage on the stage’, or expert, of the traditional classroom to a ‘guide on the side’, or facilitator in the online environment. This change is not always easy, but requires a fundamental shift in approach and methods of working:

"As much as I believe in constructivist learning theory, I still found it difficult the first time a student openly challenged my thinking in the online environment. It took a tremendous amount of self-discipline for me to avoid falling back into a traditional teacher role. My every inclination was to respond with a “Yes, but…“ statement that implies that I still know the one right way of approaching the problem at hand. The expectation that the teacher has the right answer is not restricted to instructors; one student repeatedly apologized for taking issue with a statement I made, even though I repeatedly told him that I expected students to challenge ideas I put forth. I am finding that it takes constant vigilance to prevent both teacher and students from falling back into traditional classroom roles." (Hird)

"About tutors having to adjust to checking and contributing to conferences frequently rather than logging in once a week like a traditional seminar. It's the 'taken-for-granted' ways of operating in the traditional mode that can sometimes get in the way of effective online learning - for tutors and students. I guess to an extent we all need to become socialised to this new way of teaching and learning." (Ballantyne)

Others also recognise that unfamiliarity with the technology based approach and an 'email mentality', which lends itself to providing answers to direct questions, rather than encourage debate and reflection through the online discussion, can act as a barrier (McKenzie-b).

Adopting new Roles

As well as change in approach to help avoid the traditional roles of the classroom teacher, the online tutor must adopt the new roles outlined in the previous section, and do this with flexibility and in responsiveness to learner needs:

"In some groups (the) role was more affective support than managerial - (they) expected (the) tutor to be involved in the work. In other groups tutor was expected to be leader." (Daele-D 2000a)

"Facilitating an online course is not an easy task. It is a time-consuming and challenging experience that requires the use of ‘soft’ skills for promoting and building a sense of group within the Learning Sets. Ultimately, however, it is very rewarding." (Pickering and Duggleby)

Setting Guidelines

To facilitate the tutor role, clear guidelines for students are required, and some experience of the student role is recommended.

"As the instructor I set clear expectations of the time commitment I expect from students (1-2 hours per day for three weeks). And I have a clear schedule of what activities I want them working on each day (or each few days), to keep everyone together and collaborating as much as possible. Tutor time varies a lot and has a lot to do with course design. Typical is 2-4 hours per day." (Kulp)

"In order to give students some understanding of what was required in the online seminars, the four unit tutors conducted the first online seminar themselves, thereby modelling the behaviours expected." (Phillips)

Working in teams

The last quote refers to four tutors working together. Several OTiS case studies provide evidence that team working is essential for effective delivery of online learning. McKenzie’s case study (an MBA programme) illustrates the effective use of two types of tutors (McKenzie-b):

· subject or content tutors,

· learning support or process tutors.

"The reasons for using two types of tutor in the online and face-to-face processes were twofold.

"Firstly the subject tutor could be positioned as an expert resource with a focused interventions dedicated to the subject content. Whereas the process tutor could concentrate on developing long term relationships with course members over the 3 years of the MBA, and improving the course members ability to use the technology effectively. This leveraged the expensive expert resource, by allowing them to teach large numbers any time any place, whilst still allowing us to create a feeling of intimacy and motivation through the less expensive learning support tutors, who could concentrate on maintain the motivation for virtual collaborative learning.

"Secondly, we could create a community of practice of people skilled in facilitating online discussion, developing high levels of expertise in the area, without it being diluted by subject focus."

"The ability of a process (learning support) based tutor to sustain a long-term relationship with the students throughout the length of the MBA programme, is argued to be a critical success factor in the quality of the learning achieved." (McKenzie-b)

Other benefits of teamworking include sharing the load and problem solving:

"Assessments were individually marked but group moderated. The team met up at least once every week to monitor progress and review tactics and plans for the upcoming sessions. The weekly meetings were also useful for discussing problems encountered, working out common questions and themes to offer across all tutorial groups, and monitoring general student activity on the module. This particularly crucial since we were dealing with large numbers (140) and a small number of tutors (3)." (Finkelstein)

In discussions Janes (D 2000b) recaps the roles of the tutor:

to facilitate versus be expert,
to choose the type of facilitation - active, moderate, absent,
to 'allow' a group to grow, form relationships, and find its own freedom,
to be very supportive, and be seen to be present.

Clearly, to meet these roles the tutor will need to be familiar and comfortable with the technology for online learning.

4.2 Course Experiences

Examples of online courses have been selected to illustrate the use of asynchronous and synchronous communication techniques in the facilitation of learning. In each example the focus is on effective techniques for online tutoring and each case study demonstrates different methods and technologies that can be used to engage learners.

4.2.1 Facilitating mutually supported learning online

Zimmer and Alexander’s case study examines the application of Carl Roger’s communication principles to facilitate mutually supported learning online. This technique is based on the premise that some of the most effective collaborative learning takes place when learners act as tutors for one another. Applying this technique enables collaborative learning to become mutually supported learning. Students can develop the skills to act as tutors for one another by adhering to the three Rogerian communication principles that participants should:

offer individual creative insight.
be receptive.
avoid imposing dogmatic, judgemental demands.

If participants can be encouraged to adopt and follow these principles it helps to generate a trusting, mutually supportive online community and helps avoid and resolve conflicts. The third Rogerian principle – ‘avoid imposing dogmatic and judgemental demands’ – means that these principles cannot be imposed by the tutor on the students or by the students on each other. For online learners to function as effective, mutually supportive tutors themselves, they need to learn how to behave - in this case by demonstrating the three Rogerian principles. Zimmer and Alexander’s evaluation of two courses where these principles were introduced highlighted the need for tutors to ‘talk the talk’ and ‘walk the walk’, ie talk about and model appropriate behaviour in their own online communication and interaction.

Kennedy and Duffy describe an alternative model ‘PACE’ (Participation, Addition, Constructive criticism and Encouraging. These are presented as key principles for responding to contributions that students make to forum discussions. They are designed to help overcome feelings of vulnerability when students put their thoughts into a public forum, even though the ‘public’ is restricted to a class group. That vulnerability can stifle participation, as can insensitive responses.

Cowan in his case study discusses the use of Rogerian principles to encourage reflection and develop reflective skills in personal development planning in a different context.

4.2.2 Tutoring in real time (text based) environments

A key benefit of online learning is its anytime and anywhere attributes - learners can engage in learning at a time and place which suits them and their needs. However benefits can come from the use of synchronous, or real time, elements in online learning (Kennedy and Duffy). These include marking key events in the course such as the start and end of activities, increasing spontaneity and motivation, and providing a sense of immediacy and community.

Bowskill considers a course that aims to support academics new to synchronous (real time) technology or new to its use in teaching. The case study draws on experiences of two projects at Sheffield University, UK: NetLinkS (http://netways.shef.ac.uk/index.htm) and the Computer Based collaborative Group Work Project (http://collaborate.shef.ac.uk).

Bowskill’s case study offers useful tips and techniques for tutoring in real time text based environments such as online chat systems, Multi-User Object Oriented Systems (MOOs) and User Virtual Environments (MUVEs). These include:

Pre-Preparing your script

"(For) those new to these technologies, there is a tendency for them to type frantically often without fully registering what is happening on the screen. …to control that tendency you need to avoid typing in a similar fashion. The aim is to try and get them to slow down and ‘listen’ to each other. By having your script prepared, you can copy and paste responses and any directions very quickly. This in turn helps you to cope more easily with that initial frenzy. Although you may need to depart from your script it often helps you across most situations early in a course or session. It also buys you reading and thinking time."

Brief the participants about aims and objectives of the session

"Prior to the session, …brief the participants about the aims and objectives of the real time session. …beyond the aims for the unit or module in which the session might reside. It is common for people to meet in real time spaces and see what happens and although this can work it is better to brief everyone beforehand. ….helps overcome some of that initial anxiety. …a guide to using and working in the given environment should also be prepared and circulated …and the environment …should be available … for people to experiment before any formal sessions"

Use the initial sense of chaos as a learning opportunity

"in the real time session there are a number of issues …how to help the participants cope with the initial sense of chaos that can arise in early sessions…. it should be recognised that this is both a problem and a learning opportunity. Participants need to experience some of the chaos first-hand to have some sense of what it might be like for them as tutors in such environments. So, however uncomfortable that may be at first, it is worth letting them have a few minutes coming to terms with that awkwardness before starting to introduce some order and structure"

Consider adopting some conventions for working together online

"I use two conventions. The first of these is for everyone to type a single question mark when they wish to speak and to wait until this is acknowledged by the moderator (myself to start with) before speaking/typing. The second convention is to end a line with a series of dots or full stops like this...

"The use of the question mark provides a vehicle for turn taking and it can also be useful if there is any tendency by individual to dominate the discussion…its down side… is the potential to prevent more fluid interactions amongst participants. However, for first-timers (and others) I have found it helps them cope with the experience more easily.

"Finishing a line with a series of dots is intended to indicate that you have not finished speaking. This avoids any concern that can arise in the minds of participants if no messages are coming up on the screen. Too much delay can result in several people typing at once as a response to that uncertainty. This strategy also allows you as a tutor to say a little more and offer it in more digestible chunks (it offers the same opportunities for the learners as well). Another technique I use is to break lines of typing up….into bits…..like this…….just to help the text scan more easily and appear like speech rather than cold text. It is interesting to see how often participants start to adopt this and other techniques once shown. It also suggests that you are getting across to them and offering something useful."

4.2.3 Conducting real time online classes: beyond text

Roberts’ case study describes the use of multimedia tools for real time online learning including audio and shared workspaces. It compares the implementation of a synchronous integrated online delivery tool (Learnlinc) in two Australian postgraduate courses. These courses had different subjects, different levels of user experience and different levels of contact.

Learnlinc provides a multimedia approach to real time, online learning and includes:

the ability to share applications such as Powerpoint and Internet browsers,
shared workspaces through a shared whiteboard facility, for collaborative problem solving, tutorial support and data sharing etc,
audioconferencing.

Roberts makes a number of recommendations for successful real time online classes:

Be very well prepared in advance

"An experienced statistician can present the … class off the top of their head for on-campus students … For the synchronous online version the tutor had to find examples, type details on whiteboards, prepare suitable multiple choice question and answers, then a follow up whiteboard with complete explanation for students to print or save. In summary, it is not so easy to ‘wing it’ online."

Have backups available

for planned resources, eg a web site not being accessible,
for application sharing, eg by having screen dumps available,
for audio failure, eg by having key points on a summary slide.

Be aware of technical issues

the delay in audio transmission due to compression and decompression,
the pressure on bandwith of competing applications, eg launching a new whiteboard can cause the sound to break up.

Ehmann also describes the use of real time shared workspaces and whiteboards for a tutorial support service.

Videoconferencing

Tammelin describes the use of videoconferencing to deliver real time classes supporting collaboration on an environmental management module across two institutions in Finland. Scheduling of classes and differences in the levels of students’ prior experience in the subject area were two issues that had to be addressed. The videoconferencing sessions were recorded and both students and tutors evaluated their individual and collaborative contributions. Feedback from the students was extremely positive:

"Videoconferencing was the highlight of the course. There were many reasons for that. The settings were real, very close to working life lying close ahead, only this time you could afford to make mistakes. Active participation is still rather challenging, especially for a Finn… There is still some magic with the new type of high tech… Recording made it possible to go through it again and again."

"The videoconferences and the preparation sessions for them made the learning situations closer to the real world situations. Of course we could have had the same roles in a classroom, but during the videoconferences we had to communicate with people we did not know and who had a very different view on environmental issues." (Tammelin)

Glasson describes the use of de Bono’s ‘Thinking Hats’ technique as a communication method to aid effective communication in real time discussions and negotiations. The students learn the technique prior to engaging in the online class. Glasson concludes that the application of the technique makes the online discussion more efficient and effective but acknowledges that problems in scheduling. Difficulties also arose where students had not taken the module where they learned the technique prior to the online exercise.

"De Bono’s ‘Thinking Hats’ method is a simple system for categorising thinking into 6 modes, in the context of discussion. During a discussion, any participant can switch to any of the six thinking hats. The six hats promote structure and efficiency, and help to reduce the misunderstandings that can occur during discussion" (Glasson).

McKenzie addresses some of the staff development issues involved in exploiting videoconferencing technologies for online classes and suggests some techniques to encouraging staff to experiment. The case study (McKenzie-a) describes how practical case teaching, and online interaction and discussion are used with students, then becomes experiential learning for the tutors that can be used as case material for a tutor development workshop.

Further case studies on ‘Videoconferencing for Teaching and Learning’ can be found online at http://www.icbl.hw.ac.uk/ltdi/ltdi-pub.htm#VCStudies

5. Examples of Practice: strategies and techniques

The strategies and techniques used in online tutoring vary according to the context for the learning experience, the pedagogy adopted and the needs of students. However, there are some issues and experiences that cut across most learning situations. A selection of these are considered here:

technology issues,
tools, techniques and structures for online learning,
participation issues,
the creation of autonomous learners.

5.1 Technology Issues

Tutors and students need to have technology related skills in order for online learning to be successful. However, for many students it is a desire to learn about technology that motivates them to take an online course, and the course may provide them with their first experiences:

"It was important to acknowledge that for some students this would be the first time they had used a computer. By providing enough instruction to walk students through everything they needed to do an even playing field was provided for the whole group. Those who were already competent could skip these aspects of instruction." (Gilbert-Hunt and McLaine)

Dealing with technical problems can often become part of the tutor's role, particularly at the beginning of a course. This might be appropriate for a learning support tutor, but in order to prevent a subject tutor being overloaded with technical queries, strategies for managing technical questions may be required.

"Dealing with the technical problems that some students encountered at the beginning of the subject was time consuming as it involved a great deal of problem solving to even determine the issue. The few private emails to tutors usually occurred when there was a specific technical problem with the technology…We addressed these problems in a variety of ways, eg sending out information via an email list to all students directing them to the technical support available, as well as giving them further instruction." (Gilbert-Hunt and McLaine)

The reasons for technical problems are varied. Janes reports problems with the specification of equipment available to students, and the variable and potentially high cost of Internet access:

"Although we noted a minimum specification for the technology to be used, we were often faced with early adopters of technology as our students. Several reported some frustration with older equipment.

"A related issue was the cost and access to an Internet service provider (ISP) available to our international participants. A number lived in countries where ISP's charged high access fees and therefore limited some to offline preparation of discussion responses or to the printing of the course web site to paper. Some others felt the need to work with paper, so felt more comfortable when the web site was printed. To assist in these areas we chose to make the web site relatively graphic and animation free. These items were used only as optional add-ons or where deemed necessary to the learning." (Janes)

There is also a need for help desk services for students.

"As soon as any online learning gets beyond the experimental phase there needs to be a system whereby students can get technical assistance as soon as they require it. Most such students are interacting with the material, and hence most likely to require assistance outside nine to five working hours." (Roberts)

Whilst a help desk might reduce tutor workload, or at least focus it on learning support issues, it has, in some cases, been found to be an advantage to have tutors directly interfacing with students on technical issues:

"Tutor control over registration of users also enabled forgotten passwords to be resolved 'on the spot'." (Ewing)

"The tutor is able to provide some support and advice, for example, on how to send attachments or the use of WebBoard. We also point out at enrolment that students should have access to their own local technical support." (Pickering and Duggleby)

"Early introductions online required participants to become familiar with the WebCT shell and allowed tutors to quickly access any technical problems that might be occurring among the participants. The tutors often were able to troubleshoot 'on the fly' but had technical expertise (available) when required." (Janes)

"Both tutors and students need to be resourceful enough to find solutions and workarounds if the technology is not working smoothly." (Pickering and Duggleby)

Morrison provides an illustration of this resourcefulness in practice:

"A self-help group was formed, in which students exchanged telephone numbers and addresses. This proved useful when students experienced technical difficulties, with, in one case, a student travelling to another's home to restore Windows." (Morrison)

5.2 Tools, techniques and structures for online learning

With the technology operating effectively, attention can turn to the tools and techniques that are available for structuring and supporting communicating and learning online. Morrison provides a list of the some of the options available to tutors and offers comments on how they might be used:

Announcements board

These gave students a 'first port of call' for reference information, particularly on assignments and the end of course assessment.

Online handouts

… provided online… Each module could also be downloaded as a zip file, to save on telephone costs. This enabled materials to be updated more rapidly.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

The Academic Computing Service provided FAQs … These reassured students (and tutors) that they were not the only person to experience a particular problem. They also provided a quicker solution than waiting for a reply to an email.

Workgroups

One assignment involved the tutorial group splitting into two subgroups and creating two web sites. This allowed the students to work in a small group on a defined project and to experience the 'forming, storming..' etc. processes, discussed in a previous tutorial activity, for themselves.

Virtual Office Hours

Students are often reticent about contacting a tutor by telephone. Email provided a more relaxed way of asking for advice and help.

Open discussion list

The main support method… gave students the opportunity to communicate about tutorial activities and assignments, both within the tutor group and on a national level.

Online café

An area for informal discussion and meeting arrangements, which attempted to replace the student canteen in a traditional course.

The collation and use of a FAQ list is recommended:

"By the end of the training program a list of "Frequently Asked Questions and Answers" had been generated. This list will constantly be refined and distributed to tutors." (Ehmann)

The use of synchronous communication tools such as chat can provide opportunities for spontaneity (sometimes missing from asynchronous discussions) and improve motivation. However, they are not suitable in all situations:

"Chat was not included as a compulsory element due to its synchronous nature, as many students had chosen this course for the facility to undertake tutorial activities and communication with other students at a time which suited their work patterns. Occasional use was made of the chat facility by some students, more often in the national course conferences than within their own tutor group." (Morrison)

The use of journals is also recommended as a productive learning device by, amongst others, Cowan and White and Moussou:

"We learn a lot from our journals as both teachers and learners and they give the students places to tell us both their frustrations and what they enjoy/what works. It is some of the best feedback I've ever had in a group.

"We read all the journals every day and respond as quickly as possible to students' questions to reinforce the importance of asking, inquiring, reflecting, sharing in the group learning process. Silent head nodding at a screen does not provide that reinforcement, but sometimes too much "I agree" in the learning space is clutter. In the journals it is very specific, human-to-human feedback.

"Every time at the beginning students have been reluctant to post in each others journals. We started suggesting folks ask explicitly or tell explicitly if they welcomed or wanted to make comments in other's journal. It was a great way to also demonstrate the development of a norm for an online learning group." (White and Moussou)

5.3 Participation Issues

The course examples in Section 4 illustrate active participation by students, and give advice on how tutors can help to encourage participation. It is the activities involving students that take place early in a course that have a particularly important impact on the development of a supportive and motivating learning community. These activities also set the tone for those that follow. McKenzie provides just one illustration of the opening stages of a course designed to encourage participation:

"Module one introduced the technology, and allowed them to get used to navigating and communicating … At this stage the learning support tutors concentrated on creating a welcoming environment, facilitating the group forming process, and modelling good online behaviour." (McKenzie-b)

Using early activities to model good online behaviour and set the standards of acceptable behaviour can help to prevent later problems that have an effect on participation. For example:

"Another early activity was to research 'netiquette' online and this encouraged students to apply these principles to their communication activities. Inappropriate communication did not occur within my tutor group." (Morrison)

Bailey and Noakes both suggest setting ground rules that include issues of tutor response times, and recommend that these are agreed by negotiation:

"A set of ground-rules were agreed at the start which as well as issues of confidentiality and respecting opinions, included the target response times for tutors and participants. Participants wished to have 7 days to respond to activities posted up by the tutor, but requested that the tutor responded to their messages with 48 hours. It was also agreed that each member should let the group know if they were likely to be away for any period." (Bailey)

Clear guidelines for students on what response times they could expect from tutors are important. If students know when tutors are likely to respond they will not become de-motivated when they do not. Street's findings suggest a 'little but often' approach is most effective when combined with encouraging students to sort out their own problems:

"Tutors' discussion about personal strategies concluded that regular short dialogue with the conference was more efficient say 15 minutes a day rather than 2 hours a week and timing the conference dialogue to give a presence. Collectively we decided that initially we had led the students to be too reliant on our input as the 'right' answer so designed the conference activities to enable the students to rely on each other. This meant that the tutor was facilitating their learning rather than conducting it, which of course lends itself to the new philosophy of our role. Once tutors relaxed with the medium they were able to let go and facilitate." (Street)

Students too need to be clear about the effort they are required to make to complete an online course since as Kulp recognises:

"The biggest barrier is students' non-commitment of time and energy for the duration of the class. The approach I've evolved is to be very clear about the requirements in a pre-class welcome message, and to "nag" non-participants, some of whom decide to drop the course and retake it when they can give it the attention it requires." (Kulp)

'Nagging' can also take other forms such as exclusion from activities:

"...some students were reluctant to do the necessary preparation. We overcame this by excluding them from the teleconference learning experience - an experience that all students regarded as attractive." (Glasson)

Finally, whilst nagging and penalising students might be seen as negative ways in which to encourage participation, there are more positive strategies which work such as:

Awarding marks for participation in online activities and discussions, a technique described in many case studies, for example:

"If I was to chose the most important (strategies to encourage participation) they would be giving a small percentage of the subject mark to active participation in the subject and ensuring that the subject material had in-built tasks that required interaction with others to

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