Leslie Jones-Hamilton, Ph.D.
http://www.uncw.edu/cte/et/Resnotes/Jones-Hamilton/index.htm

 

Changes in society have implications for schools; schools are expected to respond through improved curriculum and standards that has direct implications for student learning. Effective teaching is one of the means to ensure maximum student learning. What are the characteristics of effective teaching? Riner (1990) identified several variables that are consistent through most observation instruments that are critical to effective teaching. These variables include: management of time, management of student behavior, instructional presentation/facilitation, and non-instructional duties. In this research note, these variables are discussed with the implications for effective teaching.

American society is rapidly changing. Dramatic advances in technology, shifting population trends, and a host of other developments point to an increasingly complex society, one in which schools will be expected to play a pivotal role. According to Graham (1991), it is no longer acceptable to allow children to slide through academically weak vocational or general curriculums, the future of America depends on American schools increasing academic standards for all students.

The pressures for schools and teachers to produce highly educated and versatile students are perhaps greater now than ever before. Most states have high-stakes school accountability programs that set forth-explicit criteria for student outcomes. Schools that fail to meet these requirements, in many instances, face dire consequences (e.g. closure, reduction in funding. Etc.). Driven largely by the serious consequences of school accountability programs, school improvement is a focal concern in the community of professional educators.

Murphy (1998) suggests that schools are challenged because businesses and organizations are shifting from an industrial world to a communication, service world, and the economic, political, and social domains impact education. Both the educational professionals and economists suggest that it is critical for students to perform better and become more adequately educated for the economic growth of the nation (Committee for Economic Development, 1987). The changes in society have influenced important assumptions about intelligence and knowledge. The specific implication for the classroom and curriculum is that a learner-center pedagogy is emerging with the role of the teacher changing from a content specialists who transmit knowledge to a facilitator of learning (Murphy, 1998).

In this research note, I attempt to identify the variables Riner (1990) suggests are indictors of effective teaching. I feel that this is critical because tougher accountability standards are being implemented. Principals and educators serving in the role of evaluating teachers need to be able to identify what effective teaching!

Wiseman, Cooner, & Knight (1999) suggest that accountability is a major reform theme that has specific implications for teaching. The only way teachers can ensure that learning is taking place is through effective teaching. In 1994, the Louisiana State Department of Education developed a teacher assessment program that has a primary goal to improve teaching and learning. Teachers are observed and mentored with opportunities for professional development. 

Classroom observations and assessments are among the most popular ways to determine if effective teaching is transpiring. According to Riner (1990), there are several variables consistent through most observation instruments that are critical to effective teaching; they are management of instructional time, management of student behavior, instructional presentation/facilitation, and performance of non-instructional duties. Obviously, the non-instructional duties do not relate directly to teaching; however, they may affect aspects of teaching and students. Non-instructional duties include factors like adhering to established laws, policies, rules and regulations.

Ellet (1989) states that effective management of instructional time and student behavior are necessary elements of effective teaching. Students must be engaged in instructional activities for the maximum amount of time in a class period. Effective management of time can be demonstrated through prompt class beginnings, maintenance of high levels of time on task, and prompt accessibility of materials. Medley (1979) summarized almost 300 studies on teacher effectiveness, and time on task is the one variable most frequently cited to effect student achievement. That is, student achievement is greater when students spend more time on task.

According to the annual Phi Delta Study, the lack of discipline in schools consistently appears at or near the top as a concern cited by the American public. In the classroom, the frustration that the teacher faces is the student that impedes the learning of others as well as his/herself. The teacher has a critical role to play in establishing rules and procedures that governs all student participation and routines in the classroom. Teachers who demonstrate effective management must also consistently monitor the behavior of students and redirect inappropriate behaviors immediately (Olivia & Pawless, 2001).

Instructional presentation is not done in isolation; planning is done prior to presenting. Planning requires written goals, stated objectives, analyzed and described tasks, selected strategies and resources, assessed entry skills of learners, and a developed unit plan. Ellect (1989) suggests that planning is essential to the achievement of the desired learning outcomes. The hours of prior planning should be evident in the delivery of an effective lesson. An effective lesson begins with introducing the lesson with a review of the previous lesson, an explanation of the reason for studying context, or an analysis of results of test taken in previous class meeting. It is essential for students to have the right frame of mind from the beginning of the lesson. Hunter and Russell (1987) refer to the creating of the "mindset" of the learners as the anticipatory set.

After students are in the right frame if mind, teachers can move to the "heart" of the lesson. Five major skills are essential for presentation of the lesson- lecturing, conducting a discussion, questioning, providing variation, and evaluating. The concept of lecturing includes telling, explaining, describing, and demonstrating. Frequently, lecturing and discussing are confused. Discussion implies interactions between the teacher and learners. Group participation is essential in effective discussions (Olivia & Pawless, 2001). 

Questioning is the technique that tends to be used incorrectly. Questioning should be planned with a specific purpose. The questions should correlate with the objectives facilitating the development of educational objectives. In an effective lesson presentation, variation is also important. Teachers should vary stimuli and learning activities. Allen and Ryan (1969) suggest that teachers vary stimuli through focusing (keeping points in mind), using interactional styles, shifting sensory channels, and using skills of movement, questions and pausing. Providing variation of learning activities moves teachers in the direction of providing individualized instruction. Individualized instruction taps into the learning styles of the students.

The evaluation process is twofold- evaluating the delivery of instruction and evaluating students' understanding of concepts. Wiseman, Cooner, and Knight (1999) describe teaching as a process of continuous development. At each stage, reflection on the improvement of the delivery of instruction is critical. Teachers should be concerned with improving delivery and methodology. What parts of the lesson worked well? What parts of the lesson didn't work as well? Students should be both formally and informally evaluated throughout the lesson. Probing and monitoring seat- work are methods to informally evaluate. Formal evaluations tend to occur at the end of a chapter or unit - tests, quizzes (Olivia & Pawless, 2001).

The need for school improvement has driven accountability programs to set explicit criteria for schools regarding student outcomes. Schools will be expected to play pivotal roles in preparing tomorrow's students. Therefore, effective teaching will become very vital. Classroom observations are used to measure effective teaching, and most observation instruments share three components that have been discussed in measuring effective teaching - management of instruction time and student behavior and instructional presentation. Maximized engaged time on task effects student achievement; student behavior must be monitored and redirected as necessary; prior planning should be reflective in lesson presentation. Important components of presentation also include teacher reflection - evaluating the delivery of instruction and evaluating students' understanding of concepts. The only means to ensure that learning is transpiring is through effective teaching. National concern is increasing regarding the declining performance of students. Improved student performance is critical for American student to become more competitive internationally!

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